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The ways in which animals sense the world changes throughout development. For example, young of many species have limited visual capabilities, but still make social decisions, likely based on information gathered through other sensory modalities. Poison frog tadpoles display complex social behaviors that have been suggested to rely on vision despite a century of research indicating tadpoles have poorly-developed visual systems relative to adults. Alternatively, other sensory modalities, such as the lateral line system, are functional at hatching in frogs and may guide social decisions while other sensory systems mature. Here, we examined development of the mechanosensory lateral line and visual systems in tadpoles of the mimic poison frog (Ranitomeya imitator) that use vibrational begging displays to stimulate egg feeding from their mothers. We found that tadpoles hatch with a fully developed lateral line system. While begging behavior increases with development, ablating the lateral line system inhibited begging in pre-metamorphic tadpoles, but not in metamorphic tadpoles. We also found that the increase in begging and decrease in reliance on the lateral line co-occurs with increased retinal neural activity and gene expression associated with eye development. Using the neural tracer neurobiotin, we found that axonal innervations from the eye to the brain proliferate during metamorphosis, with few retinotectal connections in recently-hatched tadpoles. We then tested visual function in a phototaxis assay and found tadpoles prefer darker environments. The strength of this preference increased with developmental stage, but eyes were not required for this behavior, possibly indicating a role for the pineal gland. Together, these data suggest that tadpoles rely on different sensory modalities for social interactions across development and that the development of sensory systems in socially complex poison frog tadpoles is similar to that of other frog species. [Display omitted] • Ranitomeya imitator tadpoles hatch with fully developed lateral line systems. • Use of mechanosensory stimuli for begging is dependent on developmental stage. • The visual system of R. imitator tadpoles continues to develop through metamorphosis. • When visual capabilities are poor, tadpoles rely more on mechanosensory inputs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) plays a critical role in the homeostatic regulation of respiration, blood pressure, sodium consumption and metabolic processes. Despite their significance, the circuitry mechanisms facilitating these diverse physiological functions remain incompletely understood. In this study, we present a whole-brain mapping of both the afferent and efferent connections of Phox2b-expressing and GABAergic neurons within the NTS. Our findings reveal that these neuronal populations not only receive monosynaptic inputs primarily from the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, supra-midbrain and cortical areas, but also mutually project their axons to these same locales. Moreover, intense monosynaptic inputs are received from the central amygdala, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, the parasubthalamic nucleus and the intermediate reticular nucleus, along with brainstem nuclei explicitly engaged in respiratory regulation. In contrast, both neuronal groups extensively innervate brainstem nuclei associated with respiratory functions, although their projections to regions above the midbrain are comparatively limited. These anatomical findings provide a foundational platform for delineating an anatomical framework essential for dissecting the specific functional mechanisms of these circuits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in neural tracing have unveiled numerous neural circuits characterized by brain region and cell type specificity, illuminating the underpinnings of specific functions and behaviors. Dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the midbrain are highly heterogeneous in terms of gene and protein expression and axonal projections. Different cell types within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) tend to project to the striatum in a cell-type-dependent manner characterized by specific topography. Given the wide and dense distribution of DA axons, coupled with a combination of synaptic and volume transmission, it remains unclear how DA release is spatially and temporally regulated, to appropriately achieve specific behaviors and functions. Our hypothesis posits that hidden rules governing synapse formation between pre-synaptic DA neuron types and striatal neuron types may modulate the effect of DA at a single-cell level. To address this conjecture, we employed adeno-associated virus serotype 1 (AAV1) to visualize the neural circuitry of DA neurons. AAV1 has emerged as a potent anatomical instrument capable of labeling and visualizing pre- and postsynaptic neurons simultaneously through anterograde trans-synaptic labeling. First, AAV1-Cre was injected into the SNc, resulting in Cre expression in both medium spiny neurons and interneurons in the striatum. Due to the potential occurrence of the retrograde transfer of AAV1, only striatal interneurons were considered for trans-synaptic or trans-neuronal labeling. Interneuron types expressing parvalbumin, choline acetyltransferase, somatostatin, or nitrogen oxide synthase exhibited Cre expression. Using a combination of AAV1-Cre and Cre-driven fluorophore expressing AAVs, striatal interneurons and the axons originating from the SNc were visualized in distinct colors. Using immunofluorescence against neurotransmitter transporters, almost all axons in the striatum visualized using this approach were confirmed to be dopaminergic. Moreover, individual DA axons established multiple appositions on the somata and proximal dendrites of interneurons. This finding suggests that irrespective of the extensive and widespread axonal arborization of DA neurons, a particular DA neuron may exert a significant influence on specific interneurons. Thus, AAV1-based labeling of the DA system can be a valuable tool to uncover the concealed rules governing these intricate relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The circadian clock coordinates rhythms in numerous physiological processes to maintain organismal homeostasis. Since the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is widely accepted as the circadian pacemaker, it is critical to understand the neural mechanisms by which rhythmic information is transferred from the SCN to peripheral clocks. Here, we present the first comprehensive map of SCN efferent connections and suggest a molecular logic underlying these projections. The SCN projects broadly to most major regions of the brain, rather than solely to the hypothalamus and thalamus. The efferent projections from different subtypes of SCN neurons vary in distance and intensity, and blocking synaptic transmission of these circuits affects circadian rhythms in locomotion and feeding to different extents. We also developed a barcoding system to integrate retrograde tracing with in-situ sequencing, allowing us to link circuit anatomy and spatial patterns of gene expression. Analyses using this system revealed that brain regions functioning downstream of the SCN receive input from multiple neuropeptidergic cell types within the SCN, and that individual SCN neurons generally project to a single downstream brain region. This map of SCN efferent connections provides a critical foundation for future investigations into the neural circuits underlying SCN-mediated rhythms in physiology. Further, our new barcoded tracing method provides a tool for revealing the molecular logic of neuronal circuits within heterogeneous brain regions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Mice hippocampus contains three prominent subregions, CA1, CA3 and DG and is well regarded as an essential multiple task processor for learning, memory and cognition based on tremendous studies on these three subregions. The narrow region sandwiched between CA1 and CA3 called CA2 has been neglected for a long time. But it raises great attentions recently since this region manifests the indispensable role in social memory. Its unique physical position connecting CA1 and CA3 suggests the potential novel functions besides social memory regulation. But the CA2 is too small to be accurately targeted. A flexible AAV tool capable of accurately and efficiently targeting this region is highly demanded. To fill this gap, we generate an AAV expressing Cre driven by the mini Map3k15 promoter, AAV/M1-Cre, which can be easily utilized to help tracing and manipulating CA2 pyramidal neurons. However, M1-Cre labeled a small percentage of M1+RGS14− neurons that do not colocalize with any RGS14+/STEP+/PEP4+/Amigo2+ pyramidal neurons. They are proved to be the mixture of normal CA2 pyramidal neurons, CA3-like neurons in CA2-CA3 mixed border, some CA2 interneurons and rarely few CA1-like neurons, which are probably the ones projecting to the revealed CA2 downstream targets, VMH, STHY and PMV in WT mice injecting this AAV/M1-Cre virus but not in Amigo2-Cre mice. Though it is still challenging to get a pure CA2 tracking and manipulation system, this tool provides a new, more flexible and extended strategy for in-depth CA2 functional study in the future.

Mice hippocampus contains three prominent subregions, CA1, CA3 and DG and is well regarded as an essential multiple task processor for learning, memory and cognition based on tremendous studies on these three subregions. The narrow region sandwiched between CA1 and CA3 called CA2 has been neglected for a long time. But it raises great attentions recently since this region manifests the indispensable role in social memory. Its unique physical position connecting CA1 and CA3 suggests the potential novel functions besides social memory regulation. But the CA2 is too small to be accurately targeted. A flexible AAV tool capable of accurately and efficiently targeting this region is highly demanded. To fill this gap, we generate an AAV expressing Cre driven by the mini Map3k15 promoter, AAV/M1-Cre, which can be easily utilized to help tracing and manipulating CA2 pyramidal neurons. However, M1-Cre labeled a small percentage of M1+RGS14− neurons that do not colocalize with any RGS14+/STEP+/PEP4+/Amigo2+ pyramidal neurons. They are proved to be the mixture of normal CA2 pyramidal neurons, CA3-like neurons in CA2-CA3 mixed border, some CA2 interneurons and rarely few CA1-like neurons, which are probably the ones projecting to the revealed CA2 downstream targets, VMH, STHY and PMV in WT mice injecting this AAV/M1-Cre virus but not in Amigo2-Cre mice. Though it is still challenging to get a pure CA2 tracking and manipulation system, this tool provides a new, more flexible and extended strategy for in-depth CA2 functional study in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We studied the connections (connectome) of the adult zebrafish pallium using carbocyanine dye tracing and ancillary anatomical methods. The everted zebrafish pallium (dorsal telencephalic area, D) is composed of several major zones (medial, lateral, dorsal, central, anterior, and posterior) distinguishable by their topography, cytoarchitecture, immunohistochemistry, and genoarchitecture. Our comprehensive study reveals poor interconnectivity between these pallial areas, especially between medial (Dm), lateral/dorsal (Dl, Dd), and posterior (Dp) regions. This suggests that the zebrafish pallium has dedicated modules for different neural processes. Pallial connections with extrapallial regions also show compartmental organization. Major extratelencephalic afferents come from preglomerular nuclei (to Dl, Dd, and Dm), posterior tuberal nucleus (to Dm), and lateral recess nucleus (to Dl). The subpallial (ventral, V) zones dorsal Vv, Vd, and Vs, considered homologues of the striatum, amygdala, and pallidum, are mainly afferent to Dl/Dd and Dp. Regarding the efferent pathways, they also appear characteristic of each pallial region. Rostral Dm projects to the dorsal entopeduncular nucleus. Dp is interconnected with the olfactory bulbs. The central region (Dc) defined here receives mainly projections from Dl–Dd and projects toward the pretectum and optic tectum, connections, which help to delimiting Dc. The connectome of the adult pallium revealed here complements extant studies on the neuroanatomical organization of the brain, and may be useful for neurogenetic studies performed during early stages of development. The connectome of the zebrafish pallium was also compared with the pallial connections reported in other teleosts, a large group showing high pallial diversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundUnderstanding the neurobiological basis of cognition and behavior, and disruptions to these processes following injury and disease, requires a large-scale assessment of neural populations, and knowledge of their patterns of connectivity.New methodWe present an analysis platform for large-scale investigation of functional and neuroanatomical connectivity in rodents. Retrograde tracers were injected and in a subset of animals behavioral tests to drive immediate-early gene expression were administered. This approach allows users to perform whole-brain assessment of function and connection in a semi-automated quantitative manner. Brains were cut in the coronal plane, and an image of the block face was acquired. Wide-field fluorescent scans of whole sections were acquired and analyzed using Matlab software.ResultsThe toolkit utilized open-source and custom platforms to accommodate a largely automated analysis pipeline in which neuronal boundaries are automatically segmented, the position of segmented neurons are co-registered with a corresponding image acquired during sectioning, and a 3-D representation of neural tracer (and other products) throughout the entire brain is generated.Comparison with existing methodsCurrent whole brain connectivity measures primarily target mice and use anterograde tracers. Our focus on segmented units of interest (e.g., NeuN labeled neurons) and restricting measures to these units produces a flexible platform for a variety of whole brain analyses (measuring activation, connectivity, markers of disease, etc.).ConclusionsThis open-source toolkit allows an investigator to visualize and quantify whole brain data in 3-D, and additionally provides a framework that can be rapidly integrated with user-specific analyses and methodologies.

The nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) plays a critical role in the homeostatic regulation of respiration, blood pressure, sodium consumption and metabolic processes. Despite their significance, the circuitry mechanisms facilitating these diverse physiological functions remain incompletely understood. In this study, we present a whole-brain mapping of both the afferent and efferent connections of Phox2b-expressing and GABAergic neurons within the NTS. Our findings reveal that these neuronal populations not only receive monosynaptic inputs primarily from the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, supra-midbrain and cortical areas, but also mutually project their axons to these same locales. Moreover, intense monosynaptic inputs are received from the central amygdala, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, the parasubthalamic nucleus and the intermediate reticular nucleus, along with brainstem nuclei explicitly engaged in respiratory regulation. In contrast, both neuronal groups extensively innervate brainstem nuclei associated with respiratory functions, although their projections to regions above the midbrain are comparatively limited. These anatomical findings provide a foundational platform for delineating an anatomical framework essential for dissecting the specific functional mechanisms of these circuits., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Shao, Kong, Tian, Deng, Wang, Ji, Wang, Yu, Yuan, Fu and Wang.)

The extraorbital lacrimal glands (ELGs) secret tears to maintain a homeostatic environment for ocular surfaces, and pheromones to mediate social interactions. Although its distinct gender-related differences in mice and rats have been identified, its comprehensive histology together with whole-brain neuronal network remain largely unknown. The primary objective of the present study was to investigate whether sex-specific differences take place in histological and physiological perspectives. Morphological and histological data were obtained via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining in mice and rats of both genders. The innervating network was visualized by a pseudorabies virus (PRV) mediated retrograde trans-multi-synaptic tracing system for adult C57BL6/J mice of both genders. In terms of ELGs' anatomy, mice and rats across genders both have 7 main lobes, with one exception observed in female rats which have only 5 lobes. Both female rats and mice generally have relatively smaller shape size, absolute weight, and cell size than males. Our viral tracing revealed a similar trend of innervating patterns antero-posteriorly, but significant gender differences were also observed in the hypothalamus (HY), olfactory areas (OLF), and striatum (STR). Brain regions including piriform area (Pir), post-piriform transition area (TR), central amygdalar nucleus (CEA), medial amygdalar nucleus (MEA), lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), parasubthalamic nucleus (PSTN), pontin reticular nucleus (caudal part) (PRNc), and parabrachial nucleus, (PB) were commonly labeled. In addition, chemical isotope labeling-assisted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (CIL-LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR spectroscopy) were performed to reveal the fatty acids and metabolism of the ELGs, reflecting the relationship between pheromone secretion and brain network. Overall, our results revealed basic properties and the input neural networks for ELGs in both genders of mice, providing a structural basis to analyze the diverse functions of ELGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The extraorbital lacrimal glands (ELGs) secret tears to maintain a homeostatic environment for ocular surfaces, and pheromones to mediate social interactions. Although its distinct gender-related differences in mice and rats have been identified, its comprehensive histology together with whole-brain neuronal network remain largely unknown. The primary objective of the present study was to investigate whether sex-specific differences take place in histological and physiological perspectives. Morphological and histological data were obtained via magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining in mice and rats of both genders. The innervating network was visualized by a pseudorabies virus (PRV) mediated retrograde trans-multi-synaptic tracing system for adult C57BL6/J mice of both genders. In terms of ELGs' anatomy, mice and rats across genders both have 7 main lobes, with one exception observed in female rats which have only 5 lobes. Both female rats and mice generally have relatively smaller shape size, absolute weight, and cell size than males. Our viral tracing revealed a similar trend of innervating patterns antero-posteriorly, but significant gender differences were also observed in the hypothalamus (HY), olfactory areas (OLF), and striatum (STR). Brain regions including piriform area (Pir), post-piriform transition area (TR), central amygdalar nucleus (CEA), medial amygdalar nucleus (MEA), lateral hypothalamic area (LHA), parasubthalamic nucleus (PSTN), pontin reticular nucleus (caudal part) (PRNc), and parabrachial nucleus, (PB) were commonly labeled. In addition, chemical isotope labeling-assisted liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (CIL-LC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR spectroscopy) were performed to reveal the fatty acids and metabolism of the ELGs, reflecting the relationship between pheromone secretion and brain network. Overall, our results revealed basic properties and the input neural networks for ELGs in both genders of mice, providing a structural basis to analyze the diverse functions of ELGs.

Aims: This study was aimed to investigate whether electroacupuncture (EA) would increase the secretion of neurotrophin‐3 (NT‐3) from injured spinal cord tissue, and, if so, whether the increased NT‐3 would promote the survival, differentiation, and migration of grafted tyrosine kinase C (TrkC)‐modified mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)‐derived neural network cells. We next sought to determine if the latter would integrate with the host spinal cord neural circuit to improve the neurological function of injured spinal cord. Methods: After NT‐3‐modified Schwann cells (SCs) and TrkC‐modified MSCs were co‐cultured in a gelatin sponge scaffold for 14 days, the MSCs differentiated into neuron‐like cells that formed a MSC‐derived neural network (MN) implant. On this basis, we combined the MN implantation with EA in a rat model of spinal cord injury (SCI) and performed immunohistochemical staining, neural tracing, electrophysiology, and behavioral testing after 8 weeks. Results: Electroacupuncture application enhanced the production of endogenous NT‐3 in damaged spinal cord tissues. The increase in local NT‐3 production promoted the survival, migration, and maintenance of the grafted MN, which expressed NT‐3 high‐affinity TrkC. The combination of MN implantation and EA application improved cortical motor‐evoked potential relay and facilitated the locomotor performance of the paralyzed hindlimb compared with those of controls. These results suggest that the MN was better integrated into the host spinal cord neural network after EA treatment compared with control treatment. Conclusions: Electroacupuncture as an adjuvant therapy for TrkC‐modified MSC‐derived MN, acted by increasing the local production of NT‐3, which accelerated neural network reconstruction and restoration of spinal cord function following SCI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in neural tracing have unveiled numerous neural circuits characterized by brain region and cell type specificity, illuminating the underpinnings of specific functions and behaviors. Dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the midbrain are highly heterogeneous in terms of gene and protein expression and axonal projections. Different cell types within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) tend to project to the striatum in a cell-type-dependent manner characterized by specific topography. Given the wide and dense distribution of DA axons, coupled with a combination of synaptic and volume transmission, it remains unclear how DA release is spatially and temporally regulated, to appropriately achieve specific behaviors and functions. Our hypothesis posits that hidden rules governing synapse formation between pre-synaptic DA neuron types and striatal neuron types may modulate the effect of DA at a single-cell level. To address this conjecture, we employed adeno-associated virus serotype 1 (AAV1) to visualize the neural circuitry of DA neurons. AAV1 has emerged as a potent anatomical instrument capable of labeling and visualizing pre- and post-synaptic neurons simultaneously through anterograde trans-synaptic labeling. First, AAV1-Cre was injected into the SNc, resulting in Cre expression in both medium spiny neurons and interneurons in the striatum. Due to the potential occurrence of the retrograde transfer of AAV1, only striatal interneurons were considered for trans-synaptic or trans-neuronal labeling. Interneuron types expressing parvalbumin, choline acetyltransferase, somatostatin, or nitrogen oxide synthase exhibited Cre expression. Using a combination of AAV1-Cre and Cre-driven fluorophore expressing AAVs, striatal interneurons and the axons originating from the SNc were visualized in distinct colors. Using immunofluorescence against neurotransmitter transporters, almost all axons in the striatum visualized using this approach were confirmed to be dopaminergic. Moreover, individual DA axons established multiple appositions on the somata and proximal dendrites of interneurons. This finding suggests that irrespective of the extensive and widespread axonal arborization of DA neurons, a particular DA neuron may exert a significant influence on specific interneurons. Thus, AAV1-based labeling of the DA system can be a valuable tool to uncover the concealed rules governing these intricate relationships., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision., (Copyright © 2024 Karube, Yang, Kobayashi and Fujiyama.)

This study describes the cytoarchitecture of the torus longitudinalis (TL) in adult zebrafish by using light and electron microscopy, as well as its main connections as revealed by DiI tract tracing. In addition, by using high resolution confocal imaging followed by digital tracing, we describe the morphology of tectal pyramidal cells (type I cells) that are GFP positive in the transgenic line Tg(1.4dlx5a-dlx6a:GFP)ot1. The TL consists of numerous small and medium-sized neurons located in a longitudinal eminence attached to the medial optic tectum. A small proportion of these neurons are GABAergic. The neuropil shows three types of synaptic terminals and numerous dendrites. Tracing experiments revealed that the main efference of the TL is formed of parallel-like fibers that course within the marginal layer of the optic tectum. A toral projection to the thalamic nucleus rostrolateralis is also observed. Afferents to the TL come from visual and cerebellum-related nuclei in the pretectum, namely the central, intercalated and the paracommissural pretectal nuclei, as well as from the subvalvular nucleus in the isthmus. Additional afferents to the TL may come from the cerebellum but their origins could not be confirmed. The tectal afferent projection to the TL originates from cells similar to the type X cells described in other cyprinids. Tectal pyramidal neurons show round or piriform cell bodies, with spiny apical dendritic trees in the marginal layer. This anatomical study provides a basis for future functional and developmental studies focused on this cerebellum-like circuit in zebrafish.

Habenula neurons are constantly active. The level of activity affects mood and behaviour, with increased activity in the lateral habenula reflecting exposure to punishment and a switch to passive coping and depression. Here, we identify GABAergic neurons that could reduce activity in the lateral habenula of larval zebrafish. GAD65/67 immunohistochemistry and imaging of gad1b:DsRed transgenic fish suggest the presence of GABAergic terminals in the neuropil and between cell bodies in the lateral habenula. Retrograde tracing with the lipophilic dye DiD suggests that the former derives from the thalamus, while the latter originates from a group of cells in the posterior hypothalamus that are located between the posterior tuberal nucleus and hypothalamic lobes. Two-photon calcium imaging indicates that blue light causes excitation of thalamic GABAergic neurons and terminals in the neuropil, while a subpopulation of lateral habenula neurons show reduced intracellular calcium levels. Whole-cell electrophysiological recording indicates that blue light reduces membrane potential of lateral habenula neurons. These observations suggest that GABAergic input from the thalamus may mediate inhibition in the zebrafish lateral habenula. Mechanisms governing release of GABA from the neurons in the posterior hypothalamus, which are likely to be in the tuberomammillary nucleus, remain to be defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study describes the cytoarchitecture of the torus longitudinalis (TL) in adult zebrafish by using light and electron microscopy, as well as its main connections as revealed by DiI tract tracing. In addition, by using high resolution confocal imaging followed by digital tracing, we describe the morphology of tectal pyramidal cells (type I cells) that are GFP positive in the transgenic line Tg(1.4dlx5a-dlx6a:GFP) ot1. The TL consists of numerous small and medium-sized neurons located in a longitudinal eminence attached to the medial optic tectum. A small proportion of these neurons are GABAergic. The neuropil shows three types of synaptic terminals and numerous dendrites. Tracing experiments revealed that the main efference of the TL is formed of parallel-like fibers that course within the marginal layer of the optic tectum. A toral projection to the thalamic nucleus rostrolateralis is also observed. Afferents to the TL come from visual and cerebellum-related nuclei in the pretectum, namely the central, intercalated and the paracommissural pretectal nuclei, as well as from the subvalvular nucleus in the isthmus. Additional afferents to the TL may come from the cerebellum but their origins could not be confirmed. The tectal afferent projection to the TL originates from cells similar to the type X cells described in other cyprinids. Tectal pyramidal neurons show round or piriform cell bodies, with spiny apical dendritic trees in the marginal layer. This anatomical study provides a basis for future functional and developmental studies focused on this cerebellum-like circuit in zebrafish. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perirenal adipose tissue (PrAT) is a visceral adipose tissue involved in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular diseases via neural pathways. However, the origins, morphological characterization, and resiniferatoxin (RTX)-susceptibility of sensory neurons that innervate rat PrAT are yet unclear. Using neural tracing, an injection of DiI (1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate) into PrAT revealed that sensory neurons that innervate PrAT reside in T9-L3 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Peak labeling occurred in T13 and L1 DRGs. Two distinct peaks were observed in cross-sectional areas of the labeled soma, and the mean cross-sectional area was 717.1 ± 27.7 μm2. Immunofluorescence staining for transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) separated DiI-positive neurons into three subpopulations: small TRPV1-negative, small TRPV1-positive, and large TRPV1-negative. Furthermore, the injection of RTX into PrAT reduced labeled cells by 36.7% where TRPV1-positive cells were the main target of RTX denervation. These novel findings provide a structural basis for future TRPV1-dependent and TRPV1-independent studies on the sensory innervation of PrAT, which may be of interest for future therapeutic obesity treatment and intervention.

The enteric nervous system controls a variety of gastrointestinal functions including intestinal motility. The minimal neuronal circuit necessary to direct peristalsis is well-characterized but several intestinal regions display also other motility patterns for which the underlying circuits and connectivity schemes that coordinate the transition between those patterns are poorly understood. We investigated whether in regions with a richer palette of motility patterns, the underlying nerve circuits reflect this complexity. Using Ca2+ imaging, we determined the location and response fingerprint of large populations of enteric neurons upon focal network stimulation. Complemented by neuronal tracing and volumetric reconstructions of synaptic contacts, this shows that the multifunctional proximal colon requires specific additional circuit components as compared to the distal colon, where peristalsis is the predominant motility pattern. Our study reveals that motility control is hard-wired in the enteric neural networks and that circuit complexity matches the motor pattern portfolio of specific intestinal regions.

Here, we report the findings after application of neurobiotin tracing to pallial and stellar nerves in the mantle of the cephalopod mollusk Octopus vulgaris and to the axial nerve cord in its arm. Neurobiotin backfilling is a known technique in other molluscs, but it is applied to octopus for the first time to be best of our knowledge. Different neural tracing techniques have been carried out in cephalopods to study the intricate neural connectivity of their nervous system, but mapping the nervous connections in this taxon is still incomplete, mainly due to the absence of a reliable tracing method allowing whole-mount imaging. In our experiments, neurobiotin backfilling allowed: (1) imaging of large/thick samples (larger than 2 mm) through optical clearing; (2) additional application of immunohistochemistry on the backfilled tissues, allowing identification of neural structures by coupling of a specific antibody. This work opens a series of future studies aimed to the identification of the neural diagram and connectome of octopus nervous system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Perirenal adipose tissue (PrAT) is a visceral adipose tissue involved in the pathogenesis of obesity and cardiovascular diseases via neural pathways. However, the origins, morphological characterization, and resiniferatoxin (RTX)-susceptibility of sensory neurons that innervate rat PrAT are yet unclear. Using neural tracing, an injection of DiI (1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate) into PrAT revealed that sensory neurons that innervate PrAT reside in T9-L3 dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Peak labeling occurred in T13 and L1 DRGs. Two distinct peaks were observed in cross-sectional areas of the labeled soma, and the mean cross-sectional area was 717.1 ± 27.7 μm2. Immunofluorescence staining for transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) separated DiI-positive neurons into three subpopulations: small TRPV1-negative, small TRPV1-positive, and large TRPV1-negative. Furthermore, the injection of RTX into PrAT reduced labeled cells by 36.7% where TRPV1-positive cells were the main target of RTX denervation. These novel findings provide a structural basis for future TRPV1-dependent and TRPV1-independent studies on the sensory innervation of PrAT, which may be of interest for future therapeutic obesity treatment and intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primate visual brain possesses a myriad of pathways, whereby visual information originating at the retina is transmitted to multiple subcortical areas in parallel, before being relayed onto the visual cortex. The dominant retinogeniculostriate pathway has been an area of extensive study, and Vivien Casagrande's work in examining the once overlooked koniocellular pathway of the lateral geniculate nucleus has generated interest in how alternate subcortical pathways can contribute to visual perception. Another subcortical visual relay center is the inferior pulvinar (PI), which has four subdivisions and numerous connections with other subcortical and cortical areas and is directly recipient of retinal afferents. The complexity of subcortical connections associated with the PI subdivisions has led to differing results from various groups. A particular challenge in determining the exact connectivity pattern has been in accurately targeting the subdivisions of the PI with neural tracers. Therefore, in the present study, we used a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)‐guided stereotaxic injection system to inject bidirectional tracers in the separate subdivisions of the PI, the superior layers of the superior colliculus, the retina, and the lateral geniculate nucleus. Our results have determined for the first time that the medial inferior pulvinar (PIm) is innervated by widefield retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), and this pathway is not a collateral branch of the geniculate and collicular projecting RGCs. Furthermore, our tracing data shows no evidence of collicular terminations in the PIm, which are confined to the centromedial and posterior PI. The primate visual brain possesses a myriad of pathways, whereby visual information originating at the retina is transmitted to multiple subcortical areas in parallel, before being relayed onto the visual cortex. With few neural tracer studies focusing on nongeniculostriate pathways, we demonstrate that the medial inferior pulvinar is innervated by widefield retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), and this pathway is not a collateral branch of the geniculate (LGN) and collicular projecting RGCs. Furthermore, our data show no evidence of collicular terminations in the medial inferior pulvinar, but proof of LGN input to the visual pulvinar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A multifunctional nanobiomaterial has been developed by deliberately combining functions of superparamagnetism, fluorescence, and axonal tracing into one material. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles were first synthesized and coated with a silica layer to prevent emission quenching through core-dye interactions; a fluorescent molecule, fluorescein isothiocyanate, was doped inside second layer of silica shell to improve photo-stability and to enable further thiol functionalization. Subsequently, biotinylated dextran amine, a sensitive axonal tracing reagent, was immobilized on the thiol-functionalized nanoparticle surfaces. The resulting nanoparticles were characterized by transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging and fluorescence confocal microscopy. In vitro cell experiments using both undifferentiated and differentiated Neuro-2a cells showed that the cells were able to take up the nanoparticles intracellularly and that the nanoparticles showed good biocompatibilities. In summary, this new material demonstrated promising performances for both optical and magnetic resonance imaging modalities, suggesting its promising potentials in applications such as in non-invasive imaging, particularly in neuronal tracing. Graphical abstract: [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, several capsular stroke models have been reported with different targets of destruction. This study was performed to establish an accurate internal capsule (IC) target for capsular stroke modeling in rats. We injected adeno-associated virus serotype 5 (AAV)-CaMKII-EYFP into forelimb motor cortex and AAV-CaMKII-mCherry into hindlimb motor cortex (n = 9) to anterogradely trace the pyramidal fibers and map their somatotopic distribution in the IC. On the basis of the neural tracing results, we created photothrombotic infarct lesions in rat forelimb and hindlimb motor fiber (FMF and HMF) areas of the IC (n = 29) and assessed motor behavior using a forelimb-use asymmetry test, a foot-fault test, and a single-pellet reaching test. We found that the FMFs and HMFs were primarily distributed in the inferior portion of the posterior limb of the IC, with the FMFs located largely ventral to the HMFs but with an area of partial overlap. Photothrombotic lesions in the FMF area resulted in persistent motor deficits. In contrast, lesions in the HMF area did not result in persistent motor deficits. These results indicate that identification of the somatotopic distribution of pyramidal fibers is critical for accurate targeting in animal capsular stroke models: only infarcts in the FMF area resulted in long-lasting motor deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transitional zone between the ventral part of the piriform cortex and the anterior cortical nucleus of the amygdala, named the cortex-amygdala transition zone (CxA), shows two differential features that allow its identification as a particular structure. First, it receives dense cholinergic and dopaminergic innervations as compared to the adjacent piriform cortex and amygdala, and second, it receives projections from the main and accessory olfactory bulbs. In this work we have studied the pattern of afferent and efferent projections of the CxA, which are mainly unknown, by using the retrograde tracer Fluorogold and the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextranamine. The results show that the CxA receives a relatively restricted set of intratelencephalic connections, originated mainly by the olfactory system and basal forebrain, with minor afferents from the amygdala. The only relevant extratelencephalic afference originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The efferent projections of the CxA reciprocate the inputs from the piriform cortex and olfactory amygdala. In addition, the CxA projects densely to the basolateral amygdaloid nucleus and the olfactory tubercle. The extratelencephalic projections of the CxA are very scarce, and target mainly hypothalamic structures. The pattern of connections of the CxA suggests that it is indeed a transitional area between the piriform cortex and the cortical amygdala. Double labeling with choline acetyltransferase indicates that the afferent projection from the basal forebrain is the origin of its distinctive cholinergic innervation, and double labeling with dopamine transporter shows that the projection from the VTA is the source of dopaminergic innervation. These connectivity and neurochemical features, together with the fact that it receives vomeronasal in addition to olfactory information, suggest that the CxA may be involved in processing olfactory information endowed with relevant biological meaning, such as odors related to reproductive or defensive behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cerebellum is organized into a map of zones that is manifested in various ways according to gene expression, anatomical connectivity, neuronal firing properties, behavioral specificity, and susceptibility to disease. At the center of every zone is the Purkinje cell, the principal cell type of the cerebellum and sole output of the cerebellar cortex. During development, Purkinje cells are thought to coordinate the zonal patterning of all other cell types. However, the morphogenetic mechanism that mediates the interaction between Purkinje cells and afferent fibers remains unclear. To address this problem in vivo, I took advantage of a rapid fluorescent-based transynaptic tracing approach to determine the nature of mossy fiber to Purkinje cell connectivity during early postnatal development, a period when the afferent map is assembling into clear-cut zonal circuits. By injecting WGA-Alexa 555 into the lower thoracic-upper lumber spinal cord, I found that spinocerebellar mossy fibers transynaptically transfer tracer into zones of Purkinje cells that are directly adjacent to the fibers. The traced Purkinje cell zones formed a zebrin-like pattern that was defined by the expression of neurofilament heavy chain (NFH), a marker of zones in the postnatal developing cerebellum. These results suggest that Purkinje cells generate the zonal circuit map by using molecular cues, neuronal activity, and synaptic contact. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To investigate the biochemical characteristic of the neurons associated Zusanli (ST 36) in the rat by using Alexa Fluor 594 conjugated cholera toxin subunit B (AF594-CTB) neural tracing and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) fluorescent immunohistochemical techniques. Methods: Four male Sprague Dawley rats were injected with AF594-CTB into the corresponding area of the Zusanli in the human body. After 3 surviving days, the rat's spinal cord and dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) at lumbar segments were dissected following perfusion with 4% paraformaldehyde, cut into sections, and then stained with CGRPfluorescent immunohistochemical method. Results: AF594-CTB labeled sensory neurons were detected in the L3-L6 DRGs with high concentration in L4 DRG, and the labeled motor neurons located in the dorsolateral and intermediate regions of lamina IX from L3-L5 segments with high concentration at L4. Meanwhile, CGRPpositive neural labeling distributed symmetrically on both sides of DRGs, anterior and dorsal horns of spinal cord. In the AF594-CTB labeled neurons, 37% sensory neurons and 100% motor neurons expressed CGRPpositive. Conclusion: These findings present the morphological evidence to demonstrate that the sensory and motor neurons associated Zusanli in the rat distributed with segmental and regional patterns, and contained CGRP-expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A long-term live-imaging workstation to follow the development of cultured neurons during the first few days in vitro (DIV) is developed. In order to monitor neuronal polarization and axonal growth by live imaging, we built a micro-incubator system that provides stable temperature, pH, and osmolarity in the culture dish under the microscope, while preserving environment sterility. We are able to image living neurons at 2 DIVs for 48 h with a temporal resolution of one frame for every 2 min. The main features of this system are its ability to adapt to every cell-culture support, to integrate in any optical microscope, because of the relatively small dimensions (9.5 x 6.5 x 2.5 cm) and low weight of the system (<200 g), and to monitor the physiological parameters in situ. Moreover, we developed an image-analysis algorithm to quantify the cell motility, in order to characterize its complex temporal-spatial pattern. The algorithm applies morphological image processing operations on the temporal variations occurring in the inspected region of interest. Here, it is used to automatically detect cellular motility in three distinct morphological regions of the neurons: around the soma, along the neurites, and in the growth cone. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neuroanatomical tracing is considered a crucial technique to assess the axonal regeneration level after injury, but traditional tracers do not meet the needs of in vivo neural tracing in deep tissues. Magnetic resonance (MR) and photoacoustic (PA) imaging have high spatial resolution, great penetration depth, and rich contrast. Fe 3 O 4 nanoparticles may work well as a dual-modal diagnosis probe for neural tracers, with the potential to improve nerve regeneration. The present study combines antegrade neural tracing imaging therapy for the peripheral nervous system. Fe 3 O 4 @COOH nanoparticles are successfully conjugated with biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) to produce antegrade nano-neural tracers, which are encapsulated by microfluidic droplets to control leakage and allow sustained, slow release. They have many notable advantages over traditional tracers, including dual-modal real-time MR/PA imaging in vivo, long-duration release effect, and limitation of uncontrolled leakage. These multifunctional anterograde neural tracers have potential neurotherapeutic function, are reliable and may be used as a new platform for peripheral nerve injury imaging and treatment integration., (© 2022 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Abstract: We present a stereotaxic procedure enabling MRI-guided isocentric stereotaxy in pigs. The procedure is based on the Leksell stereotaxic arch principle, and a stereotaxic localizer box with an incorporated fiducial marking system (sideplates) defining a stereotaxic space similar to the clinical Leksell system. The obtained MRIs can be imported for 3D-reconstruction and coordinate calculation in the clinical stereotaxic software planning system (Leksell SurgiPlan, Elekta AB, Sweden). After MRI the sideplates are replaced by a modified Leksell arch accommodating clinical standard manipulators for isocentric placement of DBS-electrodes, neural tracers and therapeutics in the calculated target coordinates. The mechanical accuracy of the device was within 0.3–0.5mm. Stereotaxic MRIs were imported to the stereotaxic software planning system with a mean error of 0.4–0.5mm and a max error of 0.8–0.9mm. Application accuracy measured on a phantom and on inserted skull markers in nine pigs was within 1mm in all planes. The intracerebral application accuracy found after placement of 10 manganese trajectories within the full extent of the intracerebral stereotaxic space in two minipigs was equally randomly distributed and within 0.7±0.4; 0.5±0.4; and 0.7±0.3mm in the X, Y, and Z plane. Injection of neural tracers in the subgenual gyrus of three minipigs and placement of encapsulated gene-modified cells in four minipigs confirmed the accuracy and functionality of the described procedure. We conclude that the devised technique and instrumentation enable high-precision stereotaxic procedures in pigs that may benefit future large animal neuroscience research and outline the technical considerations for a similar stereotaxic methodology in other animals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Headaches, especially migraine, involve not only pain but also aspects such as vasodilation of cranial vessels and sensitization of nerve endings, processes dependent on and connected to the central nervous system. To understand pathogenic mechanisms of headache, it is important to elucidate the central projections of sensory nerves that innervate cranial vessels, of which the middle meningeal artery (MMA) is the largest artery supplying the dura mater. In this study, cholera toxin subunit b (CTb) or wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase conjugate (WGA-HRP) was applied on the adventitia of MMA. After perfusion fixation, the brainstem, the C1–C4 spinal segments and the trigeminal and C2 dorsal root ganglia were removed and sections from these tissues were processed to visualize transported tracers. Labeled cell bodies were seen ipsilaterally in the trigeminal and C2 dorsal root ganglia. Labeled nerve terminations were found ipsilaterally in the lateral part of the spinal dorsal horn of segments C1–C3 and in the caudal and interpolar parts of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. WGA-HRP labeled terminations were mainly located in laminae I and II, whereas CTb labeled terminations located in laminae III–V. These results indicate that sensory information from the MMA is transmitted through both trigeminal and cervical spinal nerve branches to a region in the central nervous system extending rostrally from the C3 dorsal horn to the interpolar part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. Our data further substantiates that the sensory innervation of the MMA, in addition to putative nociceptive afferents, include a population of large caliber afferents with an as yet unclear but presumably non-nociceptive role. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The circuits that generate rhythmic locomotor activities are located in the ventromedial area of the lumbar spinal cord and comprise commissural interneurons necessary for left–right alternation during walking movements. In this study we injected biotinylated dextran amine (BDA) into the ventromedial gray matter of the lumbar spinal cord of neonatal rats to label commissural interneurons. Anterogradely labeled axons arose from the site of injection, crossed the midline in the anterior commissure and arborized extensively in the contralateral ventral horn of the spinal cord. The presence of neurotransmitter systems in labeled axon terminals of commissural interneurons was investigated by using antibodies raised against specific transmitter-related proteins. Boutons potentially containing inhibitory amino acids were identified by applying glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD65/67) and glycine transporter 2 antibodies. Out of 1146 BDA-labeled axon terminals, 663 boutons were assumed on this basis to be inhibitory; 76% of these terminals were immunoreactive for glycine transporter, 53% were immunoreactive for GAD and about 30% of inhibitory boutons might contain both inhibitory amino acids. Boutons potentially containing putative excitatory neurotransmitter were revealed with antibodies raised against vesicular glutamate transporters 1 and 2. Out of 590 BDA-labeled boutons about one fourth (158) were immunoreactive for glutamate transporters. These mammalian commissural interneurons are compared to the glycinergic commissural interneurons in the swimming CPGs of lamprey and the Xenopus tadpole. Our results show that commissural interneurons in the mammalian spinal cord form a heterogeneous group including glutamatergic excitatory and GABAergic and glycinergic inhibitory neurons. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We present a novel system for storing and manipulating microscopic images from sections through the brain and higher-level data extracted from such images. The system is designed and built on a three-tier paradigm and provides the research community with a web-based interface for facile use in neuroscience research. The Oracle relational database management system provides the ability to store a variety of objects relevant to the images and provides the framework for complex querying of data stored in the system. Further, the suite of applications intimately tied into the infrastructure in the application layer provide the user the ability not only to query and visualize the data, but also to perform analysis operations based on the tools embedded into the system. The presentation layer uses extant protocols of the modern web browser and this provides ease of use of the system. The present release, named Functional Anatomy of the Cerebro-Cerebellar System (FACCS), available through The Rodent Brain Workbench (http://rbwb.org/), is targeted at the functional anatomy of the cerebro-cerebellar system in rats, and holds axonal tracing data from these projections. The system is extensible to other circuits and projections and to other categories of image data and provides a unique environment for analysis of rodent brain maps in the context of anatomical data. The FACCS application assumes standard animal brain atlas models and can be extended to future models. The system is available both for interactive use from a remote web-browser client as well as for download to a local server machine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The second postnatal week is a critical period in rat motor development. The expansion of corticospinal innervation coincides with elimination of polyneuronal innervation of muscles, onset of quadrupedal locomotion and refinement of muscle afferent input to the ventral horn. Such developmental events are believed to be activity-dependent. In the present study, muscle afferent activity was temporarily reduced by injecting distal forelimb muscles with botulinum toxin A (BTX). Injections of toxin or saline were made unilaterally on postnatal day (P) 7 which in BTX-treated animals lead to a profound loss of movement in the affected limb over the next week before function returned. The neural tracer cholera toxin B (CTB) was injected into the extensor digitorum communis (EDC) at either P14 or P28. Allowing 3 days for tracer transport, the spinal cords were sectioned and immunostained for CTB and cJun. In separate experiments, behavioural testing of the forelimb was carried out between P35 and P49. Then, sections of EDC muscle were immunostained for slow myosin. An increased density of ventral horn muscle afferent boutons was observed at P17 in BTX-treated animals compared to controls, however, by P31, this difference was not significant. However, CTB labelling also revealed significantly increased motor axon terminals in the ventral Renshaw cell region in BTX-treated animals at P31, accompanied by raised expression of cJun in ipsilateral motoneurones. BTX-treated animals showed deficits in ladder walking, and their muscles contained a higher density and significantly more clustering of slow myosin expressing muscle fibres than controls. Temporary reduction in activity did not significantly alter muscle afferent development, but temporary blockade of neuromuscular junctions did affect both muscle and motor axon, in the longer term. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The central projections of the rat superior sagittal sinus (SSS) sensory innervation were studied by transganglionic tract tracing techniques. Cholera toxin subunit b (CTb) or wheat germ agglutinin–horseradish peroxidase conjugate (WGA–HRP) was applied on the overlying dura of the SSS and labeled terminations in the brainstem and cervical spinal cord were examined under the light microscope. Labeled cell bodies were seen bilaterally in the trigeminal ganglia and in the C2 dorsal root ganglia following both CTb and WGA–HRP applications. In the brainstem, labeled terminations were mainly found in the caudal and interpolar parts of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. In the CTb cases, terminations were also found in the dorsolateral part of the cuneate nucleus. In the spinal cord, labeled terminations were primarily located in the most ventrolateral part of the C1–C3 spinal dorsal horns on both sides. WGA–HRP labeled terminations were mainly located in laminae I and II, whereas CTb-labeled terminations located in laminae III and IV. These results indicate that the sensory information from the SSS is transmitted through both trigeminal and cervical spinal nerve branches to a primary sensory nervous center that extends from the C3 dorsal horn until to the interpolar part of the spinal trigeminal nucleus. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-detectable T1 contrast agent manganese (Mn2+) has recently been introduced as a neural tracer in rodents, birds, and monkeys. We have tested to what extent this in vivo method is useful for three-dimensional (3-D) survey of connectivity patterns in the rat somatosensory system. A commonly available 3 T human clinical MRI scanner was used to trace neural pathways following focal injection of manganese chloride (MnCl2) in the somatosensory cortex. Six to 10 h after MnCl2 injection, we found significant signal enhancement in major projection systems, including corticocortical, corticostriatal, corticothalamic, corticotectal, corticopontine, and corticospinal pathways. To facilitate the assignment of anatomic localization to the observed Mn2+ signal enhancement, we registered the MRI data with a 3-D digital reconstruction of a stereotaxic rat brain atlas. Across-animal comparison using the digital model allowed demonstration of a corticothalamic 3-D topographic organization in agreement with previously published two-dimensional topographic schemes based on classical neural tracing data. We conclude that anterograde MnCl2/MRI tracing allows rapid analysis of topographic organization across multiple brain regions. The method allows a higher data throughput for 3-D studies of large-scale brain connectivity than conventional methods based on tissue sectioning. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

AbstractPrevious studies have shown that there is a population of noradrenergic cells in the caudal A1 field of the brainstem of the ewe that contain oestrogen receptors and project to the preoptic area, where gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) neurones are located. There are some discrepancies in the literature regarding the extent of this projection and the location of the cells in the A1 region. The issue has been a focus of attention because the positive feedback response to oestrogen that causes the ovulatory GnRH/luteinizing hormone surge may originate from this brainstem region. The aim of the present study was to determine the extent of the projections to the preoptic area and to determine whether the caudal A1 cells are activated by oestrogen. Eleven ovariectomized ewes received an injection of the retrograde tracer FluoroGold into the preoptic hypothalamus and four of these also received an i.m. injection of oestrogen 2 h before tissue collection. A further three sheep received i.m. oil injections to act as controls for those receiving oestrogen. Dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH)-positive, retrogradely labelled cells were found within the A1 field in sheep that received preoptic FluoroGold injections. Cells in the vicinity of the A2 and A6 fields, that were retrogradely labelled with FluoroGold, were not DBH-positive. Thus, cells in the A1 field provide a direct noradrenergic projection to the preoptic area and may be involved in the control of the secretion of GnRH in this species. Cells that project to the preoptic hypothalamus from more rostrally located areas of the brainstem are not noradrenergic. In the animals that received oestrogen, double-labelling immunohistochemistry was performed throughout the A1 field for FluoroGold, DBH and Fos. DBH cells of the A1 field expressed Fos only in the oestrogen-treated animals and not in the oil-treated animals. There was a decline in the number of DBH cells that were retrogradely labelled from the caudal region of A1 towards obex. There was a similar gradient in the number of cells that were double-labelled for Fos and FluoroGold. We conclude that there is a population of noradrenergic cells in the caudal A1 field that project to the preoptic area; this is a larger group of cells than previously reported. Oestrogen elicits an acute Fos response in these cells, which may be involved in the time-delayed positive feedback response on GnRH cells. The caudal-to-rostral gradient in the labelling with FluoroGold and Fos in DBH-positive cells is similar to that seen previously for oestrogen receptor in DBH-positive cells in the A1 field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The morphology and central projections of first-order ocellar interneurones were analysed in the blowfly, Calliphora erythrocephala after cobalt and horseradish-peroxidase labelling. Three classes of interneurones can be distinguished on the basis of axon diameters: large, medium and small neurones. In total there are 12 large, 10 medium and an unknown number of small interneurones. These interneurones connect the fused first-order ocellar neuropil (underlying the three ocelli) with various areas of the central nervous system. The large neurones terminate in three subregions of the posterior slope (ocellar foci); the medium neurones arborise in several regions of the lateral protocerebrum, in the posterior slope, the lobula, the ventral medulla, and in the pro- and mesothoracic ganglia. The thin fibers arborise in all the above regions (except in the thoracic ganglia), and in addition in the neuropil dorsal to the oesophagus and antero-ventral to posterior slope (tritocerebrum). The anatomy of the ocellar pathway in C. erythrocephala is compared with those in other studied insects. Possible interactions between ocellar interneurones and other pathways are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The medial pulvinar (PM) is a multimodal associative thalamic nucleus, recently evolved in primates. PM participates in integrative and modulatory functions, including directed attention, and consistently exhibits alterations in disorders such as schizophrenia and autism. Despite essential cognitive functions, the cortical inputs to the PM have not been systematically investigated. To date, less than 20 cortices have been demonstrated to project to PM. The goal of this study was to establish a comprehensive map of the cortical afferents to PM in the marmoset monkey. Using a magnetic resonance imaging-guided injection approach, we reveal 62 discrete cortices projecting to the adult marmoset PM. We confirmed previously reported connections and identified further projections from discrete cortices across the temporal, parietal, retrosplenial-cingulate, prefrontal, and orbital lobes. These regions encompass areas recipient of PM efferents, demonstrating the reciprocity of the PM-cortical connectivity. Moreover, our results indicate that PM neurones projecting to distinct cortices are intermingled and form multimodal cell clusters. This microunit organization, believed to facilitate cross-modal integration, contrasts with the large functional subdivisions usually observed in thalamic nuclei. Altogether, we provide the first comprehensive map of PM cortical afferents, an essential stepping stone in expanding our knowledge of PM and its function., (© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: Increasing evidence from acupuncture research suggests that the nervous system corresponds closely with classical acupuncture points. The aim of this research was to provide neuroanatomical evidence for revealing the innervated properties of different acupuncture points through comparing the sensory and motor pathways associated with Hegu (LI 4) and Taichong (LR 3) in rat extremities. Materials and Methods: Cholera toxin subunit B (CTB) was injected into LI 4 and LR 3 in different rats, and CTB neural labeling was examined using fluorescent immunohistochemistry and observed under fluorescent microscopy in the corresponding areas from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system, including the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), spinal cord, and brainstem. Results: When LI 4 was injected with CTB, CTB-labeled sensory neurons ranged from C-5 to T-1 DRG, and their transganglionic axons terminated in the C-5 to C-8 spinal dorsal horn as far as the cuneate nucleus, while labeled motor neurons were located in the C-7 to T-1 spinal ventral horn. In contrast, similar neural labeling was observed for LR 3 CTB injection, with an orderly arrangement in the L-3 to L-5 DRG, L-3 to L-5 spinal dorsal horn, gracile nucleus, and L-4 to L-6 spinal ventral horn. Conclusions: The present results provide further evidence to aid understanding of the differential innervation of acupuncture points LI 4 and LR 3. This innervation establishes its connection with the nervous system in a distinct segmental and regional pattern through the spinal sensory and motor pathways., Competing Interests: No competing financial interests exist.

The enteric nervous system controls a variety of gastrointestinal functions including intestinal motility. The minimal neuronal circuit necessary to direct peristalsis is well-characterized but several intestinal regions display also other motility patterns for which the underlying circuits and connectivity schemes that coordinate the transition between those patterns are poorly understood. We investigated whether in regions with a richer palette of motility patterns, the underlying nerve circuits reflect this complexity. Using Ca 2+ imaging, we determined the location and response fingerprint of large populations of enteric neurons upon focal network stimulation. Complemented by neuronal tracing and volumetric reconstructions of synaptic contacts, this shows that the multifunctional proximal colon requires specific additional circuit components as compared to the distal colon, where peristalsis is the predominant motility pattern. Our study reveals that motility control is hard-wired in the enteric neural networks and that circuit complexity matches the motor pattern portfolio of specific intestinal regions., Competing Interests: ZL, MH, CV, VB, WB, PV No competing interests declared, (© 2019, Li et al.)