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Skin-penetrating nematodes, including the human threadworm Strongyloides stercoralis and hookworms in the genera Necator and Ancylostoma, are gastrointestinal parasites that are a major cause of neglected tropical disease in low-resource settings worldwide. These parasites infect hosts as soil-dwelling infective larvae that navigate towards hosts using host-emitted sensory cues such as odorants and body heat. Upon host contact, they invade the host by penetrating through the skin. The process of skin penetration is critical for successful parasitism but remains poorly understood and understudied. Here, we review current knowledge of skin-penetration behaviour and its underlying mechanisms in the human parasite S. stercoralis, the closely related rat parasite Strongyloides ratti, and other skin-penetrating nematodes such as hookworms. We also highlight important directions for future investigations into this underexplored process and discuss how recent advances in molecular genetic and genomic tools for Strongyloides species will enable mechanistic investigations of skin penetration and other essential parasitic behaviours in future studies. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue Strongyloides: omics to worm-free populations.

Cosmocerca is a cosmopolitan genus of endoparasitic nematodes that infect amphibians and reptiles, and currently encompasses 37 species. Given the increasing number of molecular studies examining diverse species within this genus, we aim to elucidate the phylogenetic relationships among Cosmocerca species, identify research gaps, and guide future investigations, particularly within the Neotropical region. We analysed 40 sequences of nuclear (internal transcribed spacer, ITS) and mitochondrial (cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1, COI) genetic markers from available sequenced species. Our results revealed a strong correlation between parasites' phylogeny and their geographic distribution across the world's zoogeographical regions. However, we highlight the paucity of studies on Neotropical Cosmocerca species. These findings can assist subsequent studies to address questions regarding the biology, phylogeography and evolution of Cosmocerca species, contributing to a deeper understanding of the clade Cosmocercidae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Whales, dolphins, and porpoises are susceptible to infections by protozoan and metazoan parasites. Methods: In this study, tissue samples, as well as flatworms and roundworms, were collected from a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), three short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), two striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), a long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), and a fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). These samples were molecularly analyzed. Results: In one D. delphis, Toxoplasma gondii was detected in multiple organs, including the cerebellum. The cysts of the tapeworms Clistobothrium delphini and Clistobothrium grimaldii were identified in G. melas. Flukes collected from D. delphis belong to Brachycladium atlanticum, while those removed from S. coeruleoalba probably represent a new species. Four species of lungworms were also identified: Halocercus delphini in S. coeruleoalba, Halocercus sp. in T. truncatus, Stenurus globicephalae in G. melas, and a potentially new Pharurus sp. in P. phocoena. Conclusion: These findings show, to the best of our knowledge, for the first time, the presence of T. gondii DNA in D. delphis. The cerebellum of the animal was Toxoplasma-infected, which might be relevant to inadvertent stranding. In this study, new genetic markers were sequenced for several helminth parasites of marine mammals, possibly including undescribed species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The use of Artemia as a supplement to commercial feed during the nursery period, i.e., from post-larvae 10 up to post-larvae 30, is a common procedure in the shrimp industry. This practice provides larger and more resilient post-larvae (PL) that perform better in grow-out ponds. However, the production of brine shrimp is limited to a few natural salt lakes or man-made salt ponds worldwide, subject to strongly fluctuating yields and product quality. Therefore, ongoing research is focused on finding adequate live food alternatives. Nematodes, commonly known as worms, are animals that greatly fulfil the requirements to be used as live feed for aquatic organisms. Nematodes can be reactivated from their desiccated state by simple rehydration. Additionally, they are rich in protein and fatty acids, making them a favorable nutritional diet for shrimp larvae culture. This study demonstrated that nematodes can substitute Artemia in a co-feeding regime for the nursery of shrimp in a biofloc system, increasing the survival of the post-larvae after 20 days. This study evaluated nematodes as an alternative to live Artemia when provided in a co-feeding regime to Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) post-larvae (PL) reared in a biofloc nursery system. A 20-day experiment employing PL11 was performed for an evaluation of four dietary groups: control [C] (fed exclusively with a dry commercial feed); artificial Artemia [AA] (dry feed composed of extracted and processed Artemia cysts and dry commercial feed); live Artemia and dry commercial feed [LA]; and nematodes and dry commercial feed [N] (Panagrolaimus sp. dry nematodes). The diets were provided twice a day, with the remaining six feed provisions being a commercial dry feed for all experimental groups. A biofloc system was chosen as it offers a potentially sustainable approach to intensive shrimp farming. Alkalinity and pH in the [N] group were significantly higher in the last 5 days of the experiment (p < 0.05), likely causing the significantly lower nitrite levels observed in that same group (p < 0.05). Total and volatile suspended solids were significantly lower in the two live feed groups when compared with [C] and [AA] (p < 0.05). Although PL fed the dry diets exhibited higher growth rates (p < 0.05), the [N] and [LA] groups presented significantly higher final survivals (p < 0.05). No differences were found for survival after a salinity stress test (p ≥ 0.05). These results suggest that nematodes can successfully substitute Artemia in a co-feeding regime for P. vannamei PL reared in biofloc nursery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phylum Nematoda remains very poorly sampled for mtDNA, with a strong bias toward parasitic, economically important or model species of the Chromadoria lineage. Most chromadorian mitogenomes share a specific order of genes encoded on one mtDNA strand. However, the few sequenced representatives of the Dorylaimia lineage exhibit a variable order of mtDNA genes encoded on both strands. While the ancestral arrangement of nematode mitogenome remains undefined, no evidence has been reported for Enoplia, the phylum's third early divergent major lineage. We describe the first mitogenome of an enoplian nematode, Campydora demonstrans, and contend that the complete 37‐gene repertoire and both‐strand gene encoding are ancestral states preserved in Enoplia and Dorylaimia versus the derived mitogenome arrangement in some Chromadoria. The C. demonstrans mitogenome is 17,018 bp in size and contains a noncoding perfect inverted repeat with 2013 bp‐long arms, subdividing the mitogenome into two coding regions. This mtDNA arrangement is very rare among animals and instead resembles that of chloroplast genomes in land plants. Our report broadens mtDNA taxonomic sampling of the phylum Nematoda and adds support to the applicability of cox1 gene as a phylogenetic marker for establishing nematode relationships within higher taxa. Research Highlights: Genes are encoded on both strands in the mitochondrial genome of enoplid nematode Campydora demonstrans.The coding portion of C. demonstrans mitochondrial genome is subdivided in two regions by two arms of a long noncoding inverted repeat.cox1 gene can serve as a suitable phylogenetic marker for resolving within‐higher‐taxon relationships among nematodes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study describes the composition and infection patterns of macro endoparasites associated with the lizard Phyllopezus periosus. Methods: We collected 115 P. periosus over 12 expeditions on the rocky cliffs of the Missão Velha waterfall canyon in northeastern Brazil. Specimens were collected by hand, during active searches conducted between 18:00 h and 23:30 h. The infection patterns were estimated using prevalence, total abundance, and mean intensity of infection for all parasites found. Results: A total of 4256 parasites were collected from 104 hosts, resulting in an exceptionally high overall prevalence of 90.4%. No significant ontogenetic difference in the prevalence of infection was detected. Although juveniles exhibited a high parasite prevalence their parasite loads were significantly lower compared to adults. Six species of endoparasites were found; among these, the nematode Spauligodon oxkutzcabiensis was the most common endoparasite in the digestive tract, while the pentastomid Raillietiella mottae was the only species found in the respiratory tract. Conclusions: Infection rates in Gekkota species appear to correlate with body size, with larger individuals generally exhibiting a higher prevalence. This pattern was also observed across separate populations of P. periosus and other geckos from distinct ecological domains. The dominance of the monoxenous S. oxkutzcabiensis highlights potential transmission mechanisms, suggesting that behaviors such as limb licking after feeding may contribute to its prevalence. The occurrence of Physalopteroides venancioi, Oswaldocruzia sp., Parapharyngodon sp., Physaloptera sp., infecting P. periosus are new records for this host. These findings significantly contribute to the knowledge of host-parasite dynamics in geckos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A comparative analysis and investigation of the relationship between the parasite Physaloptera retusa (Physalopteridae) and the fluctuating asymmetry (FA) of the lizard Liolaemus darwinii from Argentina was carried out. In this study, the effect produced by the presence of P. retusa on the symmetry of the heads of lizards has been investigated. Thirty specimens (12 parasitised and 18 non-parasitised) from a population of L. darwinii were examined. The results obtained showed statistical differences in fluctuating asymmetry between parasitised and non-parasitised specimens; the parasitised L. darwinii specimens presented greater head asymmetry compared to the non-parasitised ones, confirming the initial hypothesis. The present study allowed us to consider the analysis of fluctuating asymmetry as a tool that, together with parasites, can be considered and be useful in studies related to reptile populations and in conservation biology.

Nutritional deprivation triggers a switch from a saprotrophic to predatory lifestyle in soil-dwelling nematode-trapping fungi (NTF). In particular, the NTF Arthrobotrys oligospora secretes food and sex cues to lure nematodes to its mycelium and is triggered to develop specialized trapping devices. Captured nematodes are then invaded and digested by the fungus, thus serving as a food source. In this study, we examined the transcriptomic response of A. oligospora across the stages of sensing, trap development, and digestion upon exposure to the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. A. oligospora enacts a dynamic transcriptomic response, especially of protein secretion-related genes, in the presence of prey. Two-thirds of the predicted secretome of A. oligospora was up-regulated in the presence of C. elegans at all time points examined, and among these secreted proteins, 38.5% are predicted to be effector proteins. Furthermore, functional studies disrupting the t-SNARE protein Sso2 resulted in impaired ability to capture nematodes. Additionally, genes of the DUF3129 family, which are expanded in the genomes of several NTF, were highly up-regulated upon nematode exposure. We observed the accumulation of highly expressed DUF3129 proteins in trap cells, leading us to name members of this gene family as Trap Enriched Proteins (TEPs). Gene deletion of the most highly expressed TEP gene, TEP1, impairs the function of traps and prevents the fungus from capturing prey efficiently. In late stages of predation, we observed up-regulation of a variety of proteases, including metalloproteases. Following penetration of nematodes, these metalloproteases facilitate hyphal growth required for colonization of prey. These findings provide insights into the biology of the predatory lifestyle switch in a carnivorous fungus and provide frameworks for other fungal-nematode predator-prey systems.

Although the type-I interferon (IFN-I) response is considered vertebrate-specific, recent findings about the Intracellular Pathogen Response (IPR) in nematode Caenorhabditis elegans indicate that there are similarities between these two transcriptional immunological programs. The IPR is induced during infection with natural intracellular fungal and viral pathogens of the intestine and promotes resistance against these pathogens. Similarly, the IFN-I response is induced by viruses and other intracellular pathogens and promotes resistance against infection. Whether the IPR and the IFN-I response evolved in a divergent or convergent manner is an unanswered and exciting question, which could be addressed by further studies of immunity against intracellular pathogens in C. elegans and other simple host organisms. Here we highlight similar roles played by RIG-I-like receptors, purine metabolism enzymes, proteotoxic stressors, and transcription factors to induce the IPR and IFN-I response, as well as the similar consequences of these defense programs on organismal development.

Chelonoidis carbonarius is host to a great diversity of endoparasites. This research aimed to identify and taxonomically classify the parasitic forms of endoparasites found in the feces of C. carbonarius using coproparasitological methods. In total, 38 fecal samples were collected from animals captured in the municipalities of Cuiabá (n = 23) and Jataí (n = 15) in the Brazilian Ceraado. Fecal samples were submitted to at least one of the following techniques: Willis-Mollay flotation technique, zinc sulfate centrifugal flotation technique, and spontaneous sedimentation of Hoffman, and Pons, and Janer. Overall, 86.85% (33/38) of animals were positive in at least one of the diagnostic techniques. Of the 38 samples used, 50% of the animals were captive and 50% of the animals were free-living. Cysts, oocysts, and parasitic eggs were identified, as follows: Chapiniella spp. (65.78%; n = 24), Sauricola spp. (31.57%; n = 12), Ascaroidea (15.78%; n = 6), Oxyuridae (2.63%; n = 1), Trematoda (2.63%; n = 1), Acanthocephala (2.63%; n = 1), Balantidium spp. (39.47%; n = 15), Eimeria spp. (21.05%; n = 8), and Nyctotherus spp. (2.63%; n = 1). The study showed that both captive and free-living C. carbonarius are often parasitized by different endoparasite species, with nematode eggs being the most common. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Parasitic nematodes of the oxyurid family Pharyngodonidae are commonly found across reptile orders, with species of the genus Spauligodon Skrjabin, Schikhobalova & Lagodovskaja, 1960, being among the most common ones. However, scant information exists regarding the prevalence of Spauligodon nematodes in Italian reptile populations. Although two Spauligodon species have been reported from southern Italy, the presence of these worms in the rest of the country remains unknown. In this research, we describe Spauligodon orobicus sp. nov. from an Italian common wall lizard Podarcis muralis (Laurenti, 1768) of northern Italy. The new species is distinct from other known species both at the morphological and molecular level. The study increases the knowledge on the biodiversity of Spauligodon nematodes and in general on the biodiversity of Italy, and adds northern Italy to the geographical range of this nematode genus.http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:29DB5E90-9CB5-46A3-8471-FEE0395FA29A

Abstract Among parasites of the digestive tract of the black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus) in Poland, the best known are species of digenetic trematodes and cestodes. Nematodes of this bird species are not well known. Black-headed gulls, due to their varied diet, migration, life in a flock, and changes of habitat, can become infected with various species of helminths, and like synanthropic birds, they can spread the dispersal stages of parasites across urban and recreational areas. In the present study, an attempt was made to identify the helminth fauna of C. ridibundus from breeding colonies in north-central Poland. The aim of the study was to describe the taxonomic structure of parasites of the digestive tract of the black-headed gull and determine the quantitative parameters of their occurrence. A total of 43 black-headed gulls were examined post-mortem for gastrointestinal helminths, resulting in the identification of four cestodes (Paricterotaenia porosa, Lateriporus clerci, Anomotaenia micracantha, and Wardium fusum), three trematodes (Diplostomum pseudospathaceum, Plagiorchis laricola, and Apophallus muehlingi), and three nematodes (Eucoleus contortus, Cosmocephalus obvelatus, and Porrocaecum ensicaudatum). Lateriporus clerci (in adult form), C. obvelatus and P. ensicaudatum (in larval form) were recorded for the first time in the black-headed gull in Poland.

ABSTRACT There is an apparent contradiction between the sedentary lifestyle and direct development of meiofaunal organisms and their widely observed distribution. This study is situated within the theoretical framework of ecological connectivity, metacommunities, and the impact of substrate type, particularly in the unique context of oceanic islands, offering a crucial perspective to unravel the complexities of meiofaunal dispersal and connectivity. We here studied the spatial distribution of meiofauna on natural and artificial beaches of an oceanic island, that is, Gran Canaria (Canary Is., NE Atlantic Ocean). The results revealed higher abundance and richness of meiofauna on artificial substrates compared to natural ones, with nematodes, copepods, and annelids being the dominant groups. The meiofaunal community composition differed significantly between natural and artificial beaches, suggesting colonisation of artificial beaches by natural beach communities. Notably, certain species were exclusively found on artificial beaches. The study highlighted the importance of substrate type in influencing meiofaunal composition, with artificial beaches providing new ecological niches and resources for meiofauna. The dissimilarity between beaches was attributed to morphospecies exclusive to either artificial or natural substrates, emphasising the role of dispersal mechanisms. These findings contribute to understanding the metacommunity dynamics of meiofauna in oceanic islands and call for further research on dispersal potential and biogeography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, is a significant pest in apiculture. This investigation explores the individual and combined effects of the ectoparasite Bracon hebetor (B.h.) and the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae (S.c.) on G. mellonella larvae. We found that control larvae exhibited higher glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activities compared to those treated with B.h., S.c., or the B.h. + S.c. combination. Conversely, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels displayed an opposite trend. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was reduced in the B.h. and S.c. groups but significantly higher in the combined treatment. Cytochrome P450 activity increased in response to parasitism by B. hebetor. The Annexin V-FITC assay revealed decreased cell viability in parasitized groups (B.h. 79.4%, S.c. 77.3%, B.h. + S.c. 70.1%) compared to controls. DNA damage analysis demonstrated significant differences between groups, and SEM observations confirmed severe cuticle abnormalities or malformations in G. mellonella larvae. The greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, is a significant pest in apiculture and a well-established model organism for immunological and ecotoxicological studies. This investigation explores the individual and combined effects of the ectoparasite Bracon hebetor (B.h.) and the entomopathogenic nematode Steinernema carpocapsae (S.c.) on G. mellonella larvae. We evaluated the activity of oxidative stress enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione S-transferase (GST), malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, cytochrome P450 activity, cell viability using Annexin V-FITC, DNA damage via comet assay, and larval morphology through scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Control larvae exhibited higher GPx and GST activities compared to those treated with B.h., S.c., or the B.h. + S.c. combination. Conversely, MDA levels displayed the opposite trend. SOD activity was reduced in the B.h. and S.c. groups but significantly higher in the combined treatment. Cytochrome P450 activity increased in response to parasitism by B. hebetor. The Annexin V-FITC assay revealed decreased cell viability in parasitized groups (B.h. 79.4%, S.c. 77.3%, B.h. + S.c. 70.1%) compared to controls. DNA damage analysis demonstrated significant differences between groups, and SEM observations confirmed severe cuticle abnormalities or malformations in G. mellonella larvae. These findings highlight the complex interactions between B. hebetor, S. carpocapsae, and their host, G. mellonella. Additionally, they illuminate the intricate physiological responses triggered within the host larvae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The described dataset contains occurrence records of invertebrate specimens deposited at the State Museum of Natural History of the NAS of Ukraine, Lviv, Ukraine (SMNH NASU). It combines diverse taxonomic groups, mostly belonging to the class Insecta of the phylum Arthropoda, that were selected as prioritised for digitisation in war conditions. Selected specimens were ascertained as those being the most vulnerable to hostilities and requiring virtual preservation. Such virtual preservation is essential in the war realities as collection can be lost or damaged at any moment, resulting in a significant retrospective biodiversity data gap. At the same time, collection virtualisation and its deposition on the internet grant remote access to scientists who cannot visit it in person due to the war. Moreover, we believe that the mobilisation of the data from the Ukrainian collections and their publication online are essential for the integration of Ukrainian research facilities into a global scientific biodiversity pool. New information: A total of 3,660 occurrence records mobilised in 2023-2024 from the collection of invertebrates of the SMNH NASU, were published. This dynamic dataset will be continually supplied by new records during further digitisation work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among parasites of the digestive tract of the black-headed gull (Chroicocephalus ridibundus) in Poland, the best known are species of digenetic trematodes and cestodes. Nematodes of this bird species are not well known. Black-headed gulls, due to their varied diet, migration, life in a flock, and changes of habitat, can become infected with various species of helminths, and like synanthropic birds, they can spread the dispersal stages of parasites across urban and recreational areas. In the present study, an attempt was made to identify the helminth fauna of C. ridibundus from breeding colonies in north-central Poland. The aim of the study was to describe the taxonomic structure of parasites of the digestive tract of the black-headed gull and determine the quantitative parameters of their occurrence. A total of 43 black-headed gulls were examined post-mortem for gastrointestinal helminths, resulting in the identification of four cestodes (Paricterotaenia porosa, Lateriporus clerci, Anomotaenia micracantha, and Wardium fusum), three trematodes (Diplostomum pseudospathaceum, Plagiorchis laricola, and Apophallus muehlingi), and three nematodes (Eucoleus contortus, Cosmocephalus obvelatus, and Porrocaecum ensicaudatum). Lateriporus clerci (in adult form), C. obvelatus and P. ensicaudatum (in larval form) were recorded for the first time in the black-headed gull in Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of dams and hydroelectric plants affects biodiversity in aquatic environments and can facilitate the invasion of species. Few studies assess the long-term response of parasite fauna under these events. The aim of this study was to investigate possible changes in the endoparasite composition of the invasive catfish Trachelyopterus galeatus (Linnaeus, 1766) in the floodplain of the upper Paraná River over a 27-year study period. A total of 79 fish were collected in period 1 (1993) and 31 in period 2 (2019/2020) at the same sampling points, and the endoparasites were located in the gastrointestinal system using a stereomicroscope. It was found that the development of the fish and the composition of their endoparasitic fauna changed over time. In the second period, the fish presented smaller values for mass (g) and standard length (cm) when compared to period 1. It was found that three species of endoparasites were found per period, but although the richness was the same, the composition differed, and only one digenean (Microrchis oligovitellum Lunaschi, 1987 (Trematoda: Paramphistomidae)) was shared. The Porto Primavera Dam was built upstream of the site between the sampling periods (1999) and caused a number of environmental changes, possibly being the main factor responsible for changes in components of the parasite community. Anthropic modification to an environment can cause loss of diversity and loss of ecological interactions. Through our results, we emphasize the importance of including parasite fauna in studies that assess environmental impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe the composition of endoparasites associated with leaf litter anurans from an Atlantic Forest area, in southeastern Brazil. We tested if body size, sex, and reproductive modes of anuran hosts influence endoparasite abundance and richness. We sampled 583 individuals from 11 anuran species and recorded 1,600 helminths from 14 taxa. The helminths that infected the greatest number of anuran host species were the nematodes Cosmocerca parva (8 spp.), Physaloptera sp. (8 spp.), and Cosmocerca brasiliense (7 spp.), and the most abundant helminth species were Physaloptera sp. (14.6%), Cosmocerca brasiliense (13.7%) and Cosmocerca parva (12.6%). Both helminth abundance and richness were positively affected by anuran body size and dependence on water for reproduction. Larger hosts can contain a higher abundance of parasites because they may provide more physical space than smaller ones, or it can simply be a function of age. Besides, parasite species richness can be highly correlated with the amount of time a host spends in association with aquatic habitats, a conservative aspect of both parasite and host natural history. Within host species, there was a positive and significant influence of body size on helminth abundance. Haddadus binotatus females had greater helminth abundance than males, probably due to sex-related differences in behavior and/or in physiology. Our data suggest that reproductive modes could also influence helminth infection parameters in other anuran communities and should be considered in detail in future analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mastophorus muris (Gmelin, 1790) is a globally distributed parasitic nematode of broad range mammals. The taxonomy within the genus Mastophorus and the cryptic diversity among the genus are controversial among taxonomists. This study provides a detailed morphological description of M. muris from Mus musculus combined with a molecular phylogenetic approach. Moreover, descriptions and molecular data of M. muris from non-Mus rodents and wildcats complement our findings and together provide new insights into their taxonomy. The analysis of M. muris was based on light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The morphological description focused on the dentition pattern of the two trilobed pseudolabia. Additionally, we described the position of the vulva, arrangement of caudal pairs of papillae, spicules and measured specimens from both sexes and the eggs. For the molecular phylogenetic approach, we amplified the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer, and the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1. Mastophorus morphotypes based on dentition patterns and phylogenetic clustering indicate a subdivision of the genus in agreement with their host. We recognize two groups without a change to formal taxonomy: One group including those specimens infecting Mus musculus, and the second group including organisms infecting non-Mus rodents. Our genetic and morphological data shed light into the cryptic diversity within the genus Mastopohorus. We identified two host-associated groups of M. muris. The described morphotypes and genotypes of M. muris allow a consistent distinction between host-associated parasites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Sparganophilidae are one of the few non monotypic families of earthworms with no reported parasites, pathogens, or endosymbionts. While conducting a survey of the Sparganophilidae across North America we took the opportunity to examine a population from an exposed lakebed for endoparasites. Worms were dissected after anesthetizing them in clove water; 4 of 24 worms (16%) harboured a new species of Stomatophora (Apicomplexa: Monocystidae) and one worm harbored a juvenile Rhabditida (Nematoda). Based on these collections we described Stomatophora benhami n. sp. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Characterizations of meiofauna, as well as of Nematoda assemblages, are rare in oceanic islands due to logistical difficulties and, until now, no study on the vertical distribution of this fauna has been conducted in these environments. Therefore, this study shows vertical distribution patterns in the meiofauna community and Nematoda assemblage on two beaches with different sediment characteristic (volcanic and carbonate) of Trindade Island, a remote oceanic island in the Atlantic Ocean. Samples were collected in December 2014 at Príncipe and Portugueses beaches in three intertidal zones (high, mid-, and low) at two sedimentary column depths (0–10 and 10–20 cm). Overall, meiofauna was comprised of seven major groups, with Oligochaeta (57%) and Nematoda (12%) as the most abundant. Higher density and richness of meiofauna and Nematoda assemblage were found at Portugueses beach with the carbonate sediment. Nematoda assemblage was mainly comprised of non-selective deposit-feeders, with a total of 27 genera and 12 families; Cyatholaimidae and Xyalidae were the most abundant and had the highest diversity. Composition and density of meiofauna and Nematoda assemblage showed similar vertical distribution where the surface layer (0–10 cm) presented lower densities. Sediment characteristics (grain size, sorting, and composition) were primarily responsible for the regulation of the structure and distribution of meiofauna and Nematoda assemblage in Trindade Island beaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: This study aimed to examine the species diversity and structure of the strongylid community in domestic horses in Eastern Slovakia. Also, an analysis of the impact of age, sex, and collection location factors on the strongyid communities was performed. Methods: Twenty-seven horses 1.5–21 years old from two farms in eastern Slovakia with different horse-management conditions were studied. Strongylids were collected after horse treatments with Noromectin (0.2 mg ivermectin); 66,170 specimens were collected and identified. Faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) was performed following fenbendazole (FBZ) and ivermectin (IVM) treatments. Results: Twenty-four strongylid species were found; horses were infected with 6 to 16 (average = 11.7) species. Six cyathostomin species (Cylicocyclus nassatus, Cyathostomum catinatum, C. pateratum, Cylicostephanus longibursatus, C. goldi, C. calicatus) were the most prevalent; C. catinatum was the dominant species in both farms (Berger-Parker index 0.34 and 0.42). The structure of the strongylid community was multimodal with dominant, subdominant, background, and rare species. The Mantel test showed that horse age and sex did not significantly affect the nematode infracommunity composition (p > 0.05), while the impact of the collection location (farm) was significant (p = 0.03). Additionally, C. longibursatus was identified as the species contributing significantly to the observed farm differences. Strong resistance to FBZ was documented on both farms (FECRT was 36.4% and 22.7%); IVM resistance was not observed (FECRT = 100%). Conclusion: This study presents the first report on the strongylids parasitizing domestic horses in Eastern Slovakia and gives basic information for further studies of horse parasites and their control in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Filariasis is recognised as a global public health threat, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. It is caused by infection with a nematode parasite of the superfamily Filarioidea, including Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, Onchocerca volvulus, and Onchocerca lupi. Three main types of filariasis have been classified: lymphatic filariasis, subcutaneous filariasis, and serous cavity filariasis. The symptoms exhibited by individuals afflicted with filariasis are diverse and contingent upon several variables, including the species of parasite, the host's health and immune response, and the stage of infection. While many classical parasitological techniques are considered indispensable tools for the diagnosis of parasitic infections in humans, alternative methods are being sought due to their limitations. Novel tests based on host–parasite interactions offer a rapid, simple, sensitive, and specific diagnostic tool in comparison to traditional parasitological methods. This article presents methods developed in the 21st century for the diagnosis of filariasis caused by invasion from W. bancrofti, B. malayi, O. volvulus, and O. lupi, as well as techniques that are currently in use. The development of modern diagnostic methods based on molecular biology constitutes a significant advancement in the fight against filariasis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are highly evolved obligate parasites threatening global food security. These parasites have a remarkable ability to establish elaborate feeding sites in roots, which are their only source of nutrients throughout their life cycle. A wide range of nematode effectors have been implicated in modulation of host pathways for defense suppression and/or feeding site development. Plants produce a diverse array of peptide hormones including PLANT PEPTIDE CONTAINING SULFATED TYROSINE (PSY)-family peptides, which promote root growth via cell expansion and proliferation. A sulfated PSY-like peptide RaxX (required for activation of XA21 mediated immunity X) produced by the biotrophic bacterial pathogen (Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae) has been previously shown to contribute to bacterial virulence. Here, we report the identification of genes from root-knot nematodes predicted to encode PSY-like peptides (MigPSYs) with high sequence similarity to both bacterial RaxX and plant PSYs. Synthetic sulfated peptides corresponding to predicted MigPSYs stimulate root growth in Arabidopsis. MigPSY transcript levels are highest early in the infection cycle. Downregulation of MigPSY gene expression reduces root galling and egg production, suggesting that the MigPSYs serve as nematode virulence factors. Together, these results indicate that nematodes and bacteria exploit similar sulfated peptides to hijack plant developmental signaling pathways to facilitate parasitism.

Abstract Populations of freshwater species have been declining rapidly and species are becoming extinct. Thus, understanding freshwater species distribution, trends and patterns is required. The Munim River basin is situated in a region with a phytogeographic interface between the Amazon and Cerrado biomes. Although the Munim basin ichthyofauna is currently relatively well-known, data on its helminth fauna is scarce. The present study aimed to characterize the nematofauna of Bryconops cf. affinis (Günther) and Saxatilia brasiliensis (Bloch) from two different localities in the middle section of the Munim River, and thus to contribute to the knowledge of biodiversity in this region. Specimens of Bryconops cf. affinis were parasitized with the nematodes Procamallanus (Spirocamallanus) krameri (Petter, 1974) and “Porrocaecum-like” species (larvae) in both localities. Saxatilia brasiliensis presented the nematodes P. (S.) krameri, Pseudoproleptus sp. (larvae), Cucullanus sp. and Procamallanus sp. (larvae). Procamallanus (S.) krameri was found parasitizing S. brasiliensis only from the Feio stream. Morphometric data and parasitological parameters are given. The present study provides the first record of nematodes for B. cf. affinis and for S. brasiliensis contributing to the knowledge of the helminth fauna of freshwater fishes from locations that have not yet been studied, such as the Munim River basin.

IntroductionWhales, dolphins, and porpoises are susceptible to infections by protozoan and metazoan parasites.MethodsIn this study, tissue samples, as well as flatworms and roundworms, were collected from a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), three short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis), two striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), a harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), a long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas), and a fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus). These samples were molecularly analyzed.ResultsIn one D. delphis, Toxoplasma gondii was detected in multiple organs, including the cerebellum. The cysts of the tapeworms Clistobothrium delphini and Clistobothrium grimaldii were identified in G. melas. Flukes collected from D. delphis belong to Brachycladium atlanticum, while those removed from S. coeruleoalba probably represent a new species. Four species of lungworms were also identified: Halocercus delphini in S. coeruleoalba, Halocercus sp. in T. truncatus, Stenurus globicephalae in G. melas, and a potentially new Pharurus sp. in P. phocoena.ConclusionThese findings show, to the best of our knowledge, for the first time, the presence of T. gondii DNA in D. delphis. The cerebellum of the animal was Toxoplasma-infected, which might be relevant to inadvertent stranding. In this study, new genetic markers were sequenced for several helminth parasites of marine mammals, possibly including undescribed species.

Bacterivore nematodes are the most abundant animals in the biosphere, largely contributing to global biogeochemistry. Thus, the effects of environmental microbes on the nematodes' life-history traits are likely to contribute to the general health of the biosphere. Caenorhabditis elegans is an excellent model to study the behavioral and physiological outputs of microbial diets. However, the effects of complex natural bacterial assemblies have only recently been reported, as most studies have been carried out with monoxenic cultures of laboratory-reared bacteria. Here, we quantified the physiological, phenotypic, and behavioral traits of C. elegans feeding on two bacteria that were coisolated with wild nematodes from a soil sample. These bacteria were identified as a putative novel species of Stenotrophomonas named Stenotrophomonas sp. strain Iso1 and a strain of Bacillus pumilus designated Iso2. The distinctive behaviors and developmental patterns observed in animals fed with individual isolates changed when bacteria were mixed. We studied in more depth the degeneration rate of the touch circuit of C. elegans and show that B. pumilus alone is protective, while the mix with Stenotrophomonas sp. is degenerative. The analysis of the metabolite contents of each isolate and their combination identified NAD+ as being potentially neuroprotective. In vivo supplementation shows that NAD+ restores neuroprotection to the mixes and also to individual nonprotective bacteria. Our results highlight the distinctive physiological effects of bacteria resembling native diets in a multicomponent scenario rather than using single isolates on nematodes. IMPORTANCE Do behavioral choices depend on animals' microbiota? To answer this question, we studied how different bacterial assemblies impact the life-history traits of the bacterivore nematode C. elegans using isolated bacteria found in association with wild nematodes in Chilean soil. We identified the first isolate, Iso1, as a novel species of Stenotrophomonas and isolate Iso2 as Bacillus pumilus. We find that worm traits such as food choice, pharyngeal pumping, and neuroprotection, among others, are dependent on the biota composition. For example, the neurodegeneration of the touch circuit needed to sense and escape from predators in the wild decreases when nematodes are fed on B. pumilus, while its coculture with Stenotrophomonas sp. eliminates neuroprotection. Using metabolomics analysis, we identify metabolites such as NAD+, present in B. pumilus yet lost in the mix, as being neuroprotective and validated their protective effects using in vivo experiments.

Abstract The organic enrichment effects on the meiofauna and nematofauna were assessed for field sediment and other experimental ones enriched with organic matters conducted in the laboratory for 4 weeks. Also, dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH were monitored for each one. The abundance and diversity of meiofaunal groups and nematofauna varied. Strong significant correlations were found between DO and the studied items. Nematoda was the most abundant group in the field sediment and other experimental ones; their counts increased with the increase in organic enrichments and were dominated by deposit feeders. Amphipoda, Ostracoda and predator/omnivore nematodes disappeared in highly organic-enriched sediments. Changes in DO and organic enrichments might be the more attributable reasons for the alteration of the meiobenthic assemblages. The generic compositions of Nematoda provide a good indicator for environmental alterations.

Natural ecosystems are under stress due to climate change and impacts are especially prominent at high latitudes. Manifestations of these changes include northward shifts in the distribution of birds, phenological mismatches, improved survival of parasites in the environment and the arrival of new parasite vectors and intermediate hosts. We collected baseline data on parasite infections in the Svalbard rock ptarmigan (Lagopus muta hyperborea), which is endemic to two High Arctic archipelagos, by sampling 10 birds caught in September–October 2015 in Van Mijenfjorden, Spitsbergen. Five species were found, three endo- and two ectoparasites. The endoparasites included a nematode, Heterakis sp. (prevalence 10%), and two species of Eimeria, all with direct life cycles. The Eimeria species are provisionally called Eimeria sp. A and sp. B (prevalence 50% and 20%; mean intensity 1560 and 1850 oocysts per g faeces, respectively). Both show morphological similarities with known rock ptarmigan eimeriids, but further taxonomic research is needed to describe their phylogenetic relationships. The two ectoparasites, the ischnoceran chewing lice Goniodes lagopi and Lagopoecus affinis, both showed 90% prevalence and a mean intensity of 18.3 and 5.6, respectively. The eimeriids are host specific, and the chewing lice are common parasites of closely related grouse species. On the basis of our knowledge of rock ptarmigan parasites, Heterakis sp. is considered a generalist parasite. The parasite fauna of the Svalbard rock ptarmigan is impoverished compared with conspecific populations in other Arctic locations, such as Iceland and Greenland.

A general limitation of ecological investigations based on nematodes is related to the difficult and time-consuming taxonomic identification of species. Therefore, nematologists are investing many efforts to develop alternative approaches as proxies applicable in biomonitoring assessment. Recently, an alternative method that combines morpho-functional traits was proposed for detecting assemblage changes of marine nematodes. In view of the promising results, it was tested the same approach to document taxonomic structure changes of soil free-living and plant parasitic nematodes. Specifically, this attempt was carried out using three data sets that include studies from various European regions and different types of ecosystems: forests, grasslands and maize crops. Multivariate statistical analysis revealed that the simple combination of the four traits (i.e., buccal cavity cuticularization occurrence, amphideal fovea size and shape, morphology of the cuticle and pharynx) in a single code number perfectly mirrors the taxonomic structure trends of the nematode assemblage at genus level. Therefore, we predict that similar results can be also obtained by directly encoding nematode specimens with the selected traits and we point to new important advances if this procedure can be coupled with advanced machine learning.

Abstract Background The family Rhabdiasidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida) is a globally distributed group of nematode parasites, with over 110 species parasitic mainly in amphibians and reptiles. However, the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida remains unsolved, and the evolutionary relationships among its genera are still unclear. Moreover, the present knowledge of the mitochondrial genomes of rhabdiasids remains limited. Methods Two rhabdiasid species: Rhabdias kafunata Sata, Takeuchi & Nakano, 2020 and R. bufonis (Schrank, 1788) collected from the Asiatic toad Bufo gargarizans Cantor (Amphibia: Anura) in China, were identified based on morphology (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular characterization (sequencing of the nuclear 28S and ITS regions and mitochondrial cox1 and 12S genes). The complete mitochondrial genomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were also sequenced and annotated for the first time. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses based on the amino acid sequences of 12 protein-coding genes (PCGs) of the mitochondrial genomes were performed to clarify the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI). The phylogenetic analyses based on the 28S + ITS sequences, were also inferred to assess the evolutionary relationships among the genera within Rhabdiasidae. Results The detailed morphology of the cephalic structures, vulva and eggs in R. kafunata and R. bufonis was revealed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the first time. The characterization of 28S and ITS regions of R. kafunata was reported for the first time. The mitogenomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis are 15,437 bp and 15,128 bp long, respectively, and both contain 36 genes, including 12 PCGs (missing atp8). Comparative mitogenomics revealed that the gene arrangement of R. kafunata and R. bufonis is different from all of the currently available mitogenomes of nematodes. Phylogenetic analyses based on the ITS + 28S data showed Neoentomelas and Kurilonema as sister lineages, and supported the monophyly of Entomelas, Pneumonema, Serpentirhabdias and Rhabdias. Mitochondrial phylogenomic results supported Rhabdiasidae as a member of the superfamily Rhabditoidea in the suborder Rhabditina, and its occurrance as sister to the family Rhabditidae. Conclusions The complete mitochondrial genome of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were reported for the first time, and two new gene arrangements of mitogenomes in Nematoda were revealed. Mitogenomic phylogenetic results indicated that the family Rhabdiasidae is a member of Rhabditoidea in Rhabditina, and is closely related to Rhabditidae. Molecular phylogenies based on the ITS + 28S sequence data supported the validity of Kurilonema, and showed that Kurilonema is sister to Neoentomelas. The present phylogenetic results also indicated that the ancestors of rhabdiasids seem to have initially infected reptiles, then spreading to amphibians. Graphical Abstract

Dirofilaria (Nochtiella) tenuis is a mosquito-borne subcutaneous parasite of raccoons, regarded as the causative agent of most human dirofilarial infections in North America. Despite the wide geographic range of raccoons in the Americas, the presence of this parasite has not been confirmed outside its known endemic areas in the Southern United States. Based on morphological and molecular data, we present the first record of D. (N.) tenuis in wild raccoons from the Yucatan Peninsula. Adult thread-like worms recovered from subcutaneous tissues of wild raccoons were analyzed with light microscopy, histology, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA and cox1 gene sequencing for identification and phylogenetic analysis. The collected nematodes were identified as D. (N.) tenuis based on their morphology. SEM analysis revealed details about different facial ornamentations in male worms, which had not been previously described. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses confirmed morphological observations by placing our specimens within clades of the Dirofilaria genus. Our findings represent the first molecular characterization for this nematode and extend the geographical range of this parasite to Mexico. Further studies are required for a more accurate picture of the epidemiology of this filarioid across Mexico and other areas overlapping the raccoon's range.

A key aspect of parasitic nematode infection is the nematodes' ability to evade and/or suppress host immunity. This immunomodulatory ability is likely driven by the release of hundreds of excretory/secretory proteins (ESPs) during infection. While ESPs have been shown to display immunosuppressive effects on various hosts, our understanding of the molecular interactions between individual proteins released and host immunity requires further study. We have recently identified a secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) released from the entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) Steinernema carpocapsae we have named Sc-sPLA2. We report that Sc-sPLA2 increased mortality of Drosophila melanogaster infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae and promoted increased bacterial growth. Furthermore, our data showed that Sc-sPLA2 was able to downregulate both Toll and Imd pathway-associated antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) including drosomycin and defensin, in addition to suppressing phagocytosis in the hemolymph. Sc-sPLA2 was also found to be toxic to D. melanogaster with the severity being both dose- and time-dependent. Collectively, our data highlighted that Sc-sPLA2 possessed both toxic and immunosuppressive capabilities.

Slugs are important agricultural pests causing yearly yield losses. However, parasitizing helminths potentially could affect the size of the slug population. Here, a survey of terrestrial slug-parasitic helminths (nematodes and trematodes) was conducted for the first time in Sweden. In total, 268 terrestrial slugs were collected from 27 agricultural field edges in three seasons over 2020 and 2021 and dissected for presence of helminth parasites. Slugs belonging to the genus Arion were molecularly identified by mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) while parasites were identified using ribosomal RNA (18S). Overall, 13% of the collected slugs had helminth parasites and the likelihood of a slug being parasitized was highest in autumn. Slugs identified as Arion vulgaris were more likely to be parasitized than native slug species. The prevalence of nematodes and trematodes were similar; the dominant species found were Alloionema appendiculatum and Brachylaima thompsoni, respectively. This is the first record of the presence of these two species in Sweden.

Following several small-scale benthic disturbance experiments, an industrial polymetallic nodule collector trial was conducted by the company Global Sea mineral Resources (GSR) in their exploration contract area in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone using the pre-prototype vehicle Patania II (PATII). In this study, meiofaunal (i.e., nematode abundance, ASV diversity and genus composition) and environmental (i.e., grain size, total organic carbon/total nitrogen and pigment) properties are compared between disturbance categories (i.e., Pre-impact, Collector Impact and Plume Impact). One week after the trial, proxies for food availability within the Collector Impact sediments were altered with lower total organic carbon (TOC) and pigment (i.e., CPE: sum of Chlorophyll a and phaeopigments) values. Albeit not significant, the observed decrease of nematode abundance and ASV diversity, further indicate the consequences of the removal of the ecologically important surface sediment layer within the PATII tracks. Next to sediment removal, exposed sediments were modified in different ways (e.g., central strips, parallel caterpillar imprints with alternating bands of depressions/ripples and interface patches) and were also subject to heavy collector-induced sediment blanketing. We propose that these cumulative impacts have led to intricate seabed modifications with various levels of disturbance intensity which resulted in the high meiofaunal variability observed. Adjacent nodule-rich areas (i.e., Plume Impact) received considerable levels of sediment deposition (2-3 cm) and were defined by significantly lower food sources (CPE, TOC, carbon to nitrogen ratio) and an observation of meiofaunal enrichment (i.e., higher average nematode abundance and ASV diversity; although statistically non-significant), but mechanisms behind these ecological changes (e.g., suspended material-surface fluxes, passive dispersal of fauna in the plume vs. active upward migration and "viability" of redeposited fauna) remain unresolved. We conclude that complex benthic pressure-response relationships associated with the PATII trial, combined with the high degree of natural spatial and temporal variability in abyssal meiofaunal communities and sedimentary parameters, complicates the quantitative assessment of deep-sea mining associated disturbances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fish health is of significant ecological and economic importance. In response to public observations of parasite-like structures in a popular edible fish, this study aimed to characterize nematode larvae commonly found in the muscle and body cavity of Saurida tumbil (Bloch, 1795), a commercially important fish species inhabiting the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea. This fish, locally known as Hasoom, holds substantial culinary importance, being a staple in the diets of millions residing in countries around the Persian Gulf. A total of 458 Saurida tumbil specimens were obtained from fish markets between June 2022 and May 2023. Subsequent examination revealed the presence of a total of 6132 nematode larvae. Nematodes found in the body cavity were identified as belonging to the genus Hysterothylacium sp., family Raphidascarididae, while those in the muscle were identified as Anisakis sp. larval type, family Anisakidae. Histopathology results suggested that these parasites may have adverse health impacts on their fish host. Notably, both nematode genera were found in the third larval stage, which is known to be the infective stage for anisakidosis. Given the reported cases of anisakidosis among people living in the study region, it is strongly recommended that fish be properly cooked before consumption to mitigate health risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nematoda is the fourth most diverse animal phylum and is widely distributed. Marine nematodes are generally the most speciose group of meiofauna, yet there are relatively few studies on the taxonomy and biodiversity of free living marine nematodes. Here we present a review of the existing scientific literature and data in international databases on marine nematodes of Costa Rica. Most of the papers currently available mentioned Nematoda as the most abundant phylum in terms of the number of individuals within sand samples, nonetheless, only three publications included taxonomic data such as the description of new species or new records. Most publications are for the Pacific coast and we found only one paper for the Caribbean coast of Costa Rica. Large sections of the coasts and almost all the Exclusive Economic Zone remain unexplored in terms of nematode diversity, abundance and ecological role. Ten species, five free-living and five parasitic species, have been reported from the coasts of Costa Rica. Several reports indicate the presence of nematodes without further identification. More effort should be dedicated to the taxonomic identification of nematodes since, in addition to being the most abundant group, they can also be used as biological indicators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: In the present review, information about parasitic helminths (Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Acanthocephala) of wild birds in Ecuador is presented based on a PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) systematic search. Data were obtained from ten scientific articles, eight undergraduate theses, and one doctoral dissertation, published between 1966 to 2022. Forty helminth taxa were recorded, and information about the host species, site of infection, and location are provided. This review serves as a compendium for future ecological and epidemiological studies on helminths in wild birds from Ecuador. Parasitic helminths are diverse in wild birds globally, but knowledge about helminths in Ecuadorian avifauna is still fragmentary. In the present review, records about helminths (Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Acanthocephala) in Ecuadorian wild birds is presented. A systematic search was carried out using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis) guideline to compile and summarize the available literature on helminths in wild birds in Ecuador. Data were obtained from ten scientific articles, eight undergraduate theses, and one doctoral dissertation, published between 1966 to 2022. Forty helminth taxa were recorded and information about the host species, site of infection, and location are provided. Nematodes of the genus Ascaridia Dujardin, 1844 were the helminth taxa with the greatest number of records in birds, parasitizing 16 avian species. Also, the Rock Dove (Columba livia; Gmelin, 1789) was the avian species with the greater number of helminth records (n = 11). This review serves as a compendium for future ecological and epidemiological studies on helminths in wild birds in Ecuador and South America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The family Rhabdiasidae (Nematoda: Rhabditida) is a globally distributed group of nematode parasites, with over 110 species parasitic mainly in amphibians and reptiles. However, the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida remains unsolved, and the evolutionary relationships among its genera are still unclear. Moreover, the present knowledge of the mitochondrial genomes of rhabdiasids remains limited. Methods: Two rhabdiasid species: Rhabdias kafunata Sata, Takeuchi & Nakano, 2020 and R. bufonis (Schrank, 1788) collected from the Asiatic toad Bufo gargarizans Cantor (Amphibia: Anura) in China, were identified based on morphology (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular characterization (sequencing of the nuclear 28S and ITS regions and mitochondrial cox1 and 12S genes). The complete mitochondrial genomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were also sequenced and annotated for the first time. Moreover, phylogenetic analyses based on the amino acid sequences of 12 protein-coding genes (PCGs) of the mitochondrial genomes were performed to clarify the systematic position of the family Rhabdiasidae in the order Rhabditida using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI). The phylogenetic analyses based on the 28S + ITS sequences, were also inferred to assess the evolutionary relationships among the genera within Rhabdiasidae. Results: The detailed morphology of the cephalic structures, vulva and eggs in R. kafunata and R. bufonis was revealed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the first time. The characterization of 28S and ITS regions of R. kafunata was reported for the first time. The mitogenomes of R. kafunata and R. bufonis are 15,437 bp and 15,128 bp long, respectively, and both contain 36 genes, including 12 PCGs (missing atp8). Comparative mitogenomics revealed that the gene arrangement of R. kafunata and R. bufonis is different from all of the currently available mitogenomes of nematodes. Phylogenetic analyses based on the ITS + 28S data showed Neoentomelas and Kurilonema as sister lineages, and supported the monophyly of Entomelas, Pneumonema, Serpentirhabdias and Rhabdias. Mitochondrial phylogenomic results supported Rhabdiasidae as a member of the superfamily Rhabditoidea in the suborder Rhabditina, and its occurrance as sister to the family Rhabditidae. Conclusions: The complete mitochondrial genome of R. kafunata and R. bufonis were reported for the first time, and two new gene arrangements of mitogenomes in Nematoda were revealed. Mitogenomic phylogenetic results indicated that the family Rhabdiasidae is a member of Rhabditoidea in Rhabditina, and is closely related to Rhabditidae. Molecular phylogenies based on the ITS + 28S sequence data supported the validity of Kurilonema, and showed that Kurilonema is sister to Neoentomelas. The present phylogenetic results also indicated that the ancestors of rhabdiasids seem to have initially infected reptiles, then spreading to amphibians. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]