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Background Phalaris species (Poaceae) occupy diverse environments throughout all continents except Antarctica. Phalaris arundinacea is an important forage, ornamental, wetland restoration and biofuel crop grown globally as well as being a wetland invasive. The nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region has been used for Phalaris barcoding as a DNA region with high nucleotide diversity for Phalaris species identification. Recent findings that P. arundinacea populations in Minnesota USA are most likely native and not European prompted this analysis to determine whether Eurasian vs. native North American P. arundinacea differed in ITS regions. Our objectives were to amplify and compare ITS regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of historic herbaria (1882–2001) and extant (fresh) Phalaris specimens; analyze ITS regions for species-specific polymorphisms (diagnostic SNPs) and compare ITS regions of historic Phalaris specimens with known, extant Phalaris species. Results We obtained complete ITS1 and ITS2 sequences from 31 Phalaris historic (herbaria samples, 1908 to 2001) and five extant (fresh) specimens. Herbaria Phalaris specimens did not produce new SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) not present in extant specimens. Diagnostic SNPs were identified in 8/12 (66.6%) Phalaris species. This study demonstrates the use of herbaria tissue for barcoding as a means for improved species identification of Phalaris herbaria specimens. No significant correlation between specimen age and genomic DNA concentration was found. Phalaris arundinacea showed high SNP variation within its clade, with the North American being distinctly different than other USA and most Eurasian types, potentially allowing for future identification of specific SNPs to geographic origin. Conclusions While not as efficient as extant specimens to obtain DNA, Phalaris herbaria specimens can produce high quality ITS sequences to evaluate historic genetic resources and facilitate identification of new species-specific barcodes. No correlation between DNA concentration and age of historic samples (119 year range) occurred. Considerable polymorphism was exhibited in the P. arundinacea clade with several N. American accessions being distinct from Eurasian types. Further development of within species- and genus-specific barcodes could contribute to designing PCR primers for efficient and accurate identification of N. American P. arundinacea. Our finding of misidentified Phalaris species indicates the need to exercise stringent quality control measures on newly generated sequence data and to approach public sequence databases in a critical way.

Knotweed (Fallopia spp.) is an herbaceous perennial from East Asia that was brought to Europe and North America and, despite control efforts, subsequently spread aggressively on both continents. Data are available on knotweed’s modes of sexual and asexual spread, historical spread, preferred habitat, and ploidy levels. Incomplete information is available on knotweed’s current global geographic distribution and genetic diversity. The chemical composition of knotweed leaves and rhizomes has been partially discovered as related to its ability to inhibit growth and germination of neighboring plant communities via phytochemicals. There is still critical information missing. There are currently no studies detailing knotweed male and female fertility. Specifically, information on pollen viability would be important for further understanding sexual reproduction as a vector of spread in knotweed. This information would help managers determine the potential magnitude of knotweed sexual reproduction and the continued spread of diverse hybrid swarms. The potential range of knotweed and its ability to spread into diverse habitats makes studies on knotweed seed and rhizome cold tolerance of utmost importance, yet to date no such studies have been conducted. There is also a lack of genetic information available on knotweed in the upper Midwest. Detailed genetic information, such as ploidy levels and levels of genetic diversity, would answer many questions about knotweed in Minnesota, including understanding its means of spread, what species are present in what densities, and current levels of hybridization. This literature review summarizes current literature on knotweed to better understand its invasiveness and to highlight necessary future research that would benefit and inform knotweed management in the upper Midwest.

The issue of native invasive species management rarely occurs and is fraught with biological, social, and economic challenges as well as posing difficulties in decision-making for land managers. The terminology for categorization of invasive species is examined in the context of their bias(es), which complicates control. An example of a newly determined native species, which is also invasive, is used as an example to navigate control and regulatory issues. Native, invasive reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea L.) occurs throughout Minnesota and most likely the entire midwest region of central United States and Canadian provinces. The species was previously assumed to be an exotic, nonnative Eurasian import but recent molecular evidence supports its status as a native but invasive species. We address how this change to being a native but highly invasive species modifies approaches to mitigate its potential control for state, Tribal, and local authorities. The implications of these new findings will require differential shifts in land managers’ perspectives and approaches for control. Particular differences may exist for Tribal Land Managers vs. departments of natural resources and private agencies. Additionally, regulatory challenges have yet to be decided on how to legislate control for a native invasive species that had been previously assumed as exotic or foreign in origin. These opportunities to change attitudes and implement judicial control measures will serve as a template for other invasive species that are native in origin.

The native vs. exotic status of reed canarygrass (RCG), a major invasive species of Minnesota wetlands, is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate this native vs. exotic status to enhance its management. Genetic comparison of wild RCG populations from six Minnesota and six Czech Republic rivers was performed. A total of 2521 polymorphic SNP markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms) were used to evaluate 478 RCG samples across all collections. In the PCoA, all (n = 256) tested extant wild, riparian RCG genotypes from six Minnesota Rivers and six Czech Republic Rivers were genetically distinct, although some SNPs were common in both populations since they are the same species. DAPC analysis also resulted in the formation of two primary clusters separating the Minnesota Rivers and Czech Republic Rivers riparian samples, with little overlap; STRUCTURE analysis also supported this clustering with k = 4 groups as it separated the Czech Republic Rivers populations into three groups, along with Minnesota Rivers. The uniformity of PCoA, DAPC, STRUCTURE, and Evanno results indicates the distinct separation of Minnesota Rivers and Czech Republic Rivers populations. Portions of the genome (specific SNPs) are preserved or in common across continents, as indicated by STRUCTURE similarities. Nonetheless, overall significant SNP differences between the continents indicate that the Minnesota riparian populations are distinct enough from the European (Czech) collections to be delineated as native N. American RCG. PCoA of all the Minnesota RCG collections clustered Minnesota Rivers, Herbarium, Extant Herbarium, Research Field and Native Field collections together. STRUCTURE analysis (k = 2; Evanno) divided these Minnesota collections from the Commercial Field and Cultivars collections. There are two genetically distinct groups of RCG in Minnesota and since the Minnesota Rivers, the Research Field, the Native Field and pre-1930 herbaria collections clustered together, they are most likely native N. American types. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) indicated that the genetic variation was more significant within, rather than among, the RCG populations. Native, historic herbaria types cluster together with all wild RCG river populations in Minnesota, all of which were distinct from those in Central Europe, suggesting native RCG type persistence in N. America. Also, cultivated forage types of RCG are distinct from wild RCG Minnesota river populations. The SNP genetic data shows that riparian Minnesota RCG populations are native. These data will facilitate future management strategies to control RCG as a native, but invasive, species.

Gladiolus (Gladiolus ×hybridus) is an asexually propagated, herbaceous perennial and an economically important cut flower crop. In commercial production, gladioli have tall flower stalks, which limit their use to cut flowers and annual garden plants. The gladiolus breeding program at the University of Minnesota has bred and selected rapid generation cycling (RGC) cycle 1 gladiolus, which can flower in −1 soak) in comparison with noncycle 1 genotypes and commercial cultivars for potted gladiolus production. Cycle 1 genotypes flowered with all ancymidol concentrations while noncycle 1 genotypes had significantly fewer flowers or were completely nonflowering under higher concentrations. All tested genotypes had increased leaf width as ancymidol concentration increased. Conversely, flower stalk heights were shorter as the ancymidol concentration increased while the number of stalks was nonsignificant. Corms, cormel number, and fresh weights decreased in all genotypes except for one cycle 1 genotype, which had an increase in both corm number and fresh weight when treated with 100 mg·L−1 ancymidol. Cycle 1 gladiolus are more resilient to this gibberellin inhibitor even at high concentrations and can potentially be used for gladiolus potted plant production.

The present study systematically investigated the effects of warehouse and greenhouse aquaponic growing conditions on consumer acceptability of different basil cultivars. A total of 105 consumers rated their liking of three basil cultivars (Nufar, Genovese, and Eleonora), each grown in three conditions (aquaponically in a greenhouse, aquaponically in a warehouse, both with Cyprinus carpio, Koi fish, and grown in soilless medium). We used linear random effect models to investigate consumer preferences for attributes of basil plants grown in different environments by controlling for individual-specific random effects. Participants generally liked the soilless medium–grown and greenhouse aquaponically grown basil plants more than the warehouse aquaponically grown plants. The soilless medium–grown basil had the highest appearance liking and flavor intensity, followed by the greenhouse aquaponic grown and then by the warehouse aquaponic grown. Aquaponically grown cultivars were rated less bitter than soilless medium–grown cultivars.

In cases where invasive species are presumed to be strictly exotic, the discovery that the species is also native can be disconcerting for researchers and land managers responsible for eradicating an exotic invasive. Such is the case with reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea), for which decades of misinformation led to the call for nationwide control of this species in the United States. However, native populations were first reported by LaVoie and then later confirmed by Casler with molecular analyses. This, coupled with the discovery by Anderson that this species has been used in weavings by Native Americans for centuries, also made the native forms of interest for protection. Identifying the native status of historic, herbarium specimens via molecular analyses is of great interest to determine localities of native populations for confirmation with extant specimens. Genetic-based methods describing DNA polymorphism of reed canary grass are not well developed. The goal of the presented research is to assess the utility of genomic DNA obtained from historic (herbaria) and extant (fresh) tissue of reed canarygrass and the application of using Diversity Arrays Technology sequencing low density for genetic population studies.

Aquaponics, the combination of hydroponics and aquaculture into one growing system, is a controlled environment production system that potentially has increased environmental and consumer benefits over traditional production methods. There are many different ways to configure aquaponics systems that include different fish species, water circulation, lighting, plant species/density, and more. We tested three cultivars of lettuce, a common aquaponically produced crop, for yield in multiple aquaponic systems and conditions over a 13-month period in Minnesota. Four different aquaponic configurations and four types of fish were tested over the course of the experiment. There was no addition of supplemental nutrients to the systems to evaluate the differences between treatments and set a baseline. There was no difference in yield between lettuce produced aquaponically and those grown in soilless medium. However, there was a difference in yield between lettuce grown with different fish treatments. The tilapia treatment produced higher average yield than yellow perch. There was a difference between cultivars, with higher average yield from loose-leaf bunch cultivars (Salanova, Skyphos) than the bibb type (Rex). Average yield for all but one treatment was above that of reported commercial field production, making lettuce a competitive aquaponic crop in most systems.

Background. Gladiolus is a geophytic floricultural crop cultivated for cut flower and garden ornamental uses. Monocotyledonous flower crops have few, if any, flowering genes identified. Ornamental geophytes such as gladiolus, lily, tulip and daffodil are examples of floral crops that are currently being investigated to understand the flowering pathway. While the flower genes and environmental / hormonal factors leading to flowering are established in Arabidopsis, the lack of identified flowering genes in economically important ornamental geophytic crops, such as gladiolus, is critical to further genetic research. Thus, the importance of such an ornamental crop that relies on flowers (flowering) for economic purposes encourages researchers to discover the flowering genes to breed vigorous, flowering cultivars. The understanding of the flowering mechanisms in the flowering pathway is also of paramount importance. Results. Herein we show the discovery of UPSTREAM OF FLOWERING LOCUS C (UFC) and FLOWERING LOCUS C EXPRESSOR (FLX) genes in Gladiolus ×hybridus and G. dalenii. The UFC gene is adjacent to FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) which is a floral repressor in many temperate species. The FLX gene upregulates FRIGIDA (FRI) which upregulates FLC expression. Discovery of both genes is a step forward in finding the FLC gene in gladiolus, provided they are linked. Seventeen gladiolus genotypes, consisting of early flowering and commercial cultivars, were discovered to possess the UFC gene, consisting of four exons in two allelic forms. The sequenced UFC gene, when translated into its amino acid sequence and set in pair-alignment to other species, has up to 57% in amino acid identity to Musa acuminata. The UFC protein ranges in identity with pair-alignment to other monocot species, also with 57% amino acid identity to M. acuminata. The FLX gene in gladiolus has 3/5 (60%) exons in common relative to Ananas comosus, i.e. lacking 2 exons and a partially complete gene sequence; the pair-alignment of the three exons shows an overall ~65% identity of FLX to A. comosus. The UFC protein consists of a conserved domain, DUF966, which is higher in identity (86%) and pair-alignment with Elaeis guineensis. Conclusions. The two newly-discovered genes in gladiolus, UFC and FLX, provide insight to further our understanding of the flowering mechanism, flowering pathway genes, and vernalization response in ornamental geophytes. This knowledge will be valuable for gladiolus breeders and geneticists to finding the FLC gene, identify segregating seedlings for both UFC and FLX, and aid in marker assisted selection for flowering gene expression.

Wetlands provide critical wildlife habitat, improve water quality, and mitigate the impacts of floods, droughts, and climate change. Yet, they are drained, filled, dredged, and otherwise altered by humans, all of which contribute to their high susceptibility to plant invasions. Given the societal significance of wetlands and the disproportionately large amount of time and money spent controlling invaders in remaining wetlands, a fundamental shift must occur in how we approach restoration of plant-invaded wetlands. The need for more research is often used as an excuse for a lack of progress in invader management but, in fact, constraints to invader management are spread across the science, management, and stakeholder engagement domains. At their intersection are “implementation gap” constraints where the monumental efforts required to bridge the gap among scientists, managers, and community stakeholders are often unassigned, unrewarded, and underestimated. Here we synthesize and present a portfolio of broad structured approaches and specific actions that can be used to advance restoration of plant-invaded wetlands in a diversity of contexts immediately and over the long-term, linking these solutions to the constraints they best address. These solutions can be used by individual managers to chart a path forward when they are daunted by potentially needing to pivot from more familiar management actions to increase efficiency and efficacy in attaining restoration goals. In more complex collaborations with multiple actors, the shared vocabulary presented here for considering and selecting the most appropriate solution will be essential. Of course, every management context is unique (i.e., different constraints are at play) so we advocate that involved parties consider a range of potential solutions, rather than either assuming any single solution to be universally optimal or relying on a solution simply because it is familiar and feasible. Moving rapidly to optimally effective invasive plant management in wetlands may not be realistic, but making steady, incremental progress by implementing appropriate solutions based on clearly identified constraints will be critical to eventually attaining wetland restoration goals.

Gladiolus is a geophytic floricultural crop, cultivated for cut flower and garden ornamental uses. Ornamental geophytes such as gladiolus, lily, tulip and daffodil are examples of floral crops that are currently being investigated to understand the flowering pathway. While the environmental and hormonal factors leading to flowering are established in Arabidopsis. However, the lack of genetic regulation is poorly understood. Thus, the importance of such an ornamental crop that relies on flowers (flowering) for economic purposes encourages researchers to discover the flowering genes to breed vigorous flowering cultivars. The understanding of the flowering mechanisms in the flowering pathway is also paramount. Herein we show the discovery of UPSTREAM OF FLOWERING LOCUS C (UFC) and FLOWERING LOCUS C EXPRESSOR (FLX) genes in Gladiolus ×hybridus and G. dalenii. The UFC gene is adjacent to FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) which is a floral repressor in many temperate species. FLX gene upregulates FRIGIDA (FRI) which upregulates FLC expression. The discovery of both genes is a step forward in finding the FLC gene in gladiolus, provided they are linked. Seventeen gladiolus genotypes, consisting of early flowering and commercial cultivars, have the UFC gene, consisting of four exons in two allelic forms. The UFC gene sequenced when translated into amino acid sequence and set in pair-alignment to other species, has up to 57% in amino acid identity to Musa acuminata. The UFC protein ranges in identity with pair-alignment to other species, reaching up to 57% in amino acid identity to Musa acuminata. The FLX gene in gladiolus has 3/5 (60%) exons in relative to Ananas comosus, i.e. lacking 2 exons and a partially complete gene sequence; the pair-alignment of the three exons shows up over all ~65% identity of FLX to Ananas comosus. The UFC protein consists of a conserved domain, DUF966, which is higher in identity and pair-alignment, with up to 86% identity in Elaeis guineensis. The discovered FLX gene in gladiolus has 3/5 (60%) exons, i.e. lacking 2 exons and a partially complete gene sequence; the pair-alignment of the 3 exons shows up to ~65% of identity of FLX to Ananas comosus. These discovered two genes in gladiolus provide insight to further our understanding of the flowering and vernalization response in ornamental geophytes.Summary StatementTwo gladiolus flowering genes (UFC; FLX) were discovered which will aid research in understanding flowering and vernalization in geophytes

Lengthy generation times in herbaceous perennials (1 to 5-10+ years from seed to flowering) impede the rate of progress flower breeders can make during breeding and/or domestication of floricultural crops. Geophytic herbaceous perennials, i.e., those with over-wintering underground storage organs (rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers etc.), have the added complication of the need for meristem size for vegetative to reproductive phase change competency and increased flower bud number. Consequently, these and other factors necessitate that most geophytic floricultural crops are primarily vegetatively (asexually) propagated. The University of Minnesota Flower Breeding and Genetics program has focused>20 years to reduce the generation time in many geophytic crops, including monocots (Gladiolus, Lilium, Iris) and dicots (Chrysanthemum), using a suite of selection techniques from seed germination onwards to flowering. Our objectives are to compare the selection techniques which have accomplished these goals: time (week) of seed germination, rate of subsequent growth, contractile root formation (corm and bulb crops), leaf number, leaf unfolding rates, stem elongation, stem and inflorescence height, internode number and length, propagule formation (size, weight), visible bud date and flowering, and flower number. Germinating seedlings were tooth picked each week with a different color each week to designate germination weeks (G1 for week 1, etc.) which enabled selecting and transplanting only the earliest germinators/generation. In most crops (Gladiolus, Iris, Chrysanthemum), seed germination during weeks 2-4 after sowing (G2-G4) was highly correlated with visible bud dates and flowering, even if early generations flowered after Year 1. In Lilium, however, G1-G2 seedlings had earlier flowering than those in G3-G8. Incorporation of these techniques along with fast cycling within geophytic breeding programs can enhance the rate of progress made per generation, particularly when the annual cycle is reduced to 3-4 months instead of 12. Comparative analyses of traits within and among each crop allows for creating crop-specific strategies to reduce generation time and maximize gain from selection.

Aquaponics is the integration of aquaculture and hydroponics to grow fish and plants together in one system. Many producers in the northern United States are attracted to aquaponics for its potential to produce indoors year‐round. However, little is known about consumer preferences for products grown in aquaponic systems. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted an experimental auction to measure the impact of information about production method on consumers’ willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) for lettuce. For most participants, WTP was similar for both aquaponic and soil grown lettuce with overall average bids of $1.47 per 8 ounces and $1.48 per 8 ounces, respectively. Learning how samples were grown (either aquaponic or soil‐grown) rarely changed bids significantly, although on average, participants with environmental group membership lowered their bids for aquaponic lettuce samples. In general, higher frequency shoppers expressed higher average WTP for all types of lettuce. [Q100 Agriculture: General, Q220 Renewable Resources and Conservation: Fishery; Aquaculture]

Aquaponics, an integrated system with both hydroponic plant production and aquaculture fish production, is an expanding alternative agriculture system. Many key questions about the overall feasibility of aquaponic systems remain unanswered. Of particular concern for start-up and established producers alike are consumer perceptions and willingness to pay for aquaponic produce and fish. This study reports results and analysis of a consumer survey about perceptions and preferences for aquaponic-grown products that was conducted in Minnesota during Feb. 2016. Probit and ordered probit models are used to evaluate the probability of different consumer demographic segments having various levels of knowledge and perceptions about aquaponics. About one-third of respondents had previously heard of aquaponics, and upon learning more about the system through the survey, respondents tended to be generally neutral or favorable to aquaponics. Price might be an issue for many consumers, but many tend to believe that aquaponics can impact the environment in a positive way. The results represent a first step toward building knowledge about the potential consumer base for aquaponics, which is a critical piece in the system’s potential overall profitability. It appears that consumer education and marketing will be key for the expansion of the market.

A new garden chrysanthemum with a shrub plant habit is released as a descendent of a cross involving two hexaploid species: Chrysanthemum weyrichii (Maxim.) Tzvelv. (female) × C. ×grandiflorum Tzvelv. (male). Chrysanthemum ×hybridum Anderson MN 98-89-7 [U.S. Plant Patent (PP) 14,495] is a vigorously growing shrub chrysanthemum for garden culture, exhibiting extreme hybrid vigor. Single daisy reddish-purple flowers cover the foliage in the fall, numbering >3000 on second-year plants. This selection displays excellent winterhardiness in U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Z3b+ (–34.4 to –37.2 °C) as well as frost-tolerant flowers. In its second and subsequent years of growth after planting, MN 98-89-7 grows into a fall flowering (August–October), herbaceous shrub ranging in plant height from 61.0 to 91.4 cm with a diameter of 76.2 to 152.4 cm. Its spherical plant shape is achieved naturally with self-pinching, creating a highly manicured appearance; it also attracts honey bees and butterflies as pollinators. MN 98-89-7 is a vegetative product and this unnamed selection is being released for germplasm purposes as well as for potential licensing and naming.

Global warming has created increased nighttime temperatures both in field and greenhouse production of chrysanthemums during flower bud initiation (FBI) and development, causing heat delay or complete cessation of flowering. Integration of breeding and selection for heat delay insensitivity (HDI) has become imperative for greenhouse (cut, potted types) and must be accomplished on a genotypic basis, similar to winterhardiness. This is a breeding objective in the joint garden chrysanthemum breeding project between the Chungnam Provincial Agricultural Research and Extension Services and the University of Minnesota. The objectives of this research were to test 10 genotypes (cultivars, seedlings) from both breeding programs when grown in low-temperature (LT) and high-temperature (HT) short-day (SD) and long-day (LD) conditions (four environments: LTSD, LTLD, HTSD, and HTLD); determine the extent of heat delay and HDI for visible bud date (VBD), flowering, and other phenotypic traits; evaluate relative injury (RI) and cell membrane thermostability (CMT), and to select future parents with lowered RI values, higher CMT, shorter heat-induced flowering delay, and/or HDI. ‘Magic Ball’ and ‘Minnwhite’ had the shortest plant height in HTLD and HTSD, whereas ‘Geumbangul’ had stability for height in all treatments. Lowest long day leaf numbers (LDLN) occurred under LTSD in seven genotypes. However, both ‘Geumbangul’ and ‘Magic Ball’ had complete stability for LDLN across all environments. Sigmoid curves for RI% and temperature were found for all genotypes and environments with R2 = 0.79–0.89. Only ‘Mellow Moon’ had stability or equal VBDs in HTSD, LTSD, and LTLD conditions. This is the first-ever report of stability for VBD across inductive and noninductive HT/LT treatments. Only ‘Centerpiece’ flowered in all environments and also had 0 day of heat for VBD in LT and 1 day of heat delay in HT, as well as three others (Mn. Sel’n. 01-210-43, ‘Autumn Fire’, and ‘Geumbangul’). Few had linear regressions with positive slopes for heat-induced VBD or flowering delay regressed with RI%; most had no slope (R2 ≈ 0.0) for all treatments (‘Centerpiece’, Mn. Sel’n. 01-210-43), whereas others were negative (‘Mammoth™ Dark Bronze Daisy’, Flw LTLD–LTSD). Surprisingly, one linear regression had a slope of R2 = 1.0 (‘Geumbangul’, Flw LTLD–LTSD). These responses are all novel in chrysanthemums. Selecting the best parents in both breeding programs to maximize stability of all traits across these four environments with minimal crossing and selection across generations could be accomplished by stacking parental traits. A crossing scheme involving just three parents is proposed to incorporate stability for all traits in just a few generations.

Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum) has recently grown in popularity as a health food due to its high levels of omega-3 fatty acids. Many undomesticated Linum species possess a similar oil profile, in addition to perenniality, and could, therefore, provide similar products in addition to ecosystem services such as soil retention, improvements in water quality, and pollinator services. Many Linum species also possess ornamental qualities, e.g., blue flowers, which could provide added value as a new cut flower crop or garden herbaceous perennial. A perennial flax breeding program will be initiated by screening of Linum accessions for key agronomic and horticultural traits. Herein, we outline an ideotype approach which will enable identification of top herbaceous perennial candidates for domestication based on qualities relevant to oilseed, cut flower, and garden herbaceous perennial crop uses. In this review, we summarize the concept of ideotype breeding as it relates to perennial crop domestication and outline considerations for ideotype design. The tools outlined herein should prove useful to other breeders and especially for undomesticated crops. Whether the ideotype concept is applied as a framework for selection or simply as a means of generating hypotheses, applying this approach can provide structure to breeding programs with complex objectives.

The spread of invasive wetland plants has resulted in a number of negative impacts to wetland habitats including reductions in biodiversity, displacement of native plants, and altered water flow. Phalaris arundinacea L. (Reed canarygrass) is a highly competitive invasive plant in North American wetlands. While research has focused on growth characteristics and competitive ability of P. arundinacea in wetland habitats, little is known about how its growth in upland conditions differs from that in wetlands. To characterize differences in growth between upland and wetland habitats, we conducted a 13-month field experiment of unconstrained growth of P. arundinacea in upland and wetland conditions. A suite of traits was measured in genotypes collected from upland and wetland habitats. Although P. arundinacea most often occurs in wetlands, there was significantly higher growth and fecundity in the dry soil treatment. All of the growth traits measured varied among genotypes, a few varied between the habitats of origin, and significant interactions were found between habitat of origin and soil moisture treatment for several traits. The significant genetic variation observed suggests that there is potential for local adaptation to upland habitats. The higher growth and fecundity in upland conditions highlights the need for additional research to investigate P. arundinacea establishment capacity and competitiveness in upland habitats.

Geophytic floricultural crops, i.e., those with underground storage organs, are primarily vegetatively (asexually) propagated. During breeding, domestication, and continued crop improvement, sexual cycles are necessary to study trait inheritance and select new genetic variation. The University of Minnesota Flower Breeding and Genetic program is breeding new phenotypes of Gladiolus, a cut flower and garden crop with corms. Typical generation cycles from seed to flower take 3-5 years. Our objectives were to create a rapid generation cycling process to select early flowering seedlings and enhance the rate of genetic improvement. Techniques under evaluation include germination (week) in the plug phase and correlation with flowering date, fast cycling of generations (2-3/year), along with selection of high leaf number and early stem stalk emergence in cycles 1-3. A total of 71 crosses and N=1,026 seedlings were evaluated in this study. Seedlings germinated primarily in weeks 2-4 after sowing although some crosses took until week 7. All seedlings had one leaf/plant in cycle 1; whereas in cycle 2, leaf counts ranged from one to seven. By cycle 2, 6% of the seedlings (primarily from six crosses) also had elongated stems with 1-4 leaves/stem. Stem elongation in cycle 2 is a highly heritable trait. Cycle 3 plants with elongated stems flowered, reducing generation time as much as 1-2 cycles. As many as three cycles (generations)/year could be accomplished consisting of reduced greenhouse growth, dry down and cold storage treatments.

The value and role of intellectual property (IP) rights pertaining to plant innovations and their economic consequences on plant values is largely unknown. A hedonic pricing model was adapted to the characteristics of the U.S. wholesale ornamental plant market, specifically the bedding, garden plant and nursery plant markets, to analyze two forms of IP rights used on plants (i.e., plant patents and trademarks). By controlling plant-specific attributes and a variety of market variables that might affect plant values, our empirical analysis reveals sizable price premiums for plant patents that may have been masked in other studies. As expected, plant patent premiums vary considerably between species where the costs of producing and marketing new cultivars differ greatly. Surprisingly, we find that the use of trademarks have a negative effect on plant prices.