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Co-management approaches have become a core part of coastal fisheries policy and planning practice in Vanuatu. With a long history of supporting community based fisheries management (CBFM), we trace its evolution in Vanuatu to understand how new structures and processes become adopted at scale. A theory of scaling for CBFM guides the analysis of regime shifts over time. We discuss planning for sustained spread under a national programme by categorising multiple drivers of change through three intervention pathways focussed, respectively, on developing (i) an enabling environment, (ii) institutional and individual capacity, and (iii) focussed innovative action in smaller targeted constituencies. Whilst we argue that local fisheries co-management institutions balance competing interests, and so differ amongst places, we also recognise the importance of connectivity and continuity. The realisation of a national programme therefore requires patchworks of siloed projects to be knitted together into coordinated programmatic approaches that strategically integrate activities.

The unfolding COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerability of the Pacific food system to externalities and has had far-reaching impacts, despite the small number of COVID-19 cases recorded thus far. Measures adopted to mitigate risk from the pandemic have had severe impacts on tourism, remittances, and international trade, among other aspects of the political economy of the region, and are thus impacting on food systems, food security and livelihoods. Of particular concern will be the interplay between loss of incomes and the availability and affordability of local and imported foods. In this paper, we examine some of the key pathways of impact on food systems, and identify opportunities to strengthen Pacific food systems during these challenging times. The great diversity among Pacific Island Countries and Territories in their economies, societies, and agricultural potential will be an important guide to planning interventions and developing scenarios of alternative futures. Bolstering regional production and intraregional trade in a currently import-dependent region could strengthen the regional economy, and provide the health benefits of consuming locally produced and harvested fresh foods – as well as decreasing reliance on global supply chains. However, significant production, processing, and storage challenges remain and would need to be consistently overcome to influence a move away from shelf-stable foods, particularly during periods when human movement is restricted and during post-disaster recovery. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s12571-020-01087-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Aquatic foods are rich in micronutrients essential to human health, and fisheries and aquaculture are increasingly recognized for their capacity to contribute to reducing global micronutrient deficiencies and diet-based health risks. Whether fisheries and aquaculture sector and public health nutrition policies align to meet this goal, however, is unclear. Do fisheries and aquaculture policies have explicit nutrition and public health objectives? Do public health nutrition policies recognize the contribution of aquatic foods? Using content analysis, we assessed the alignment of objectives in national fisheries and public health nutrition policies. We further determined conditions associated with varying levels of cohesion among policies in these sectors or domains. We found that 77 of 158 national fisheries policies identified nutrition as a key objective in the sector, and 68 of 165 public health nutrition policies identified the importance of fish and shellfish consumption as key objectives. More recent policies were associated with improved coherence among sectors. International organization presence in policy development was also associated with greater coherence. Countries with higher overweight prevalence had fisheries and public health nutrition policies that were not aligned. There has been a promising recent trend for improved alignment of objectives between fisheries and public health nutrition policies, but more targeted and systematic policy approaches are needed to realize the potential contribution of nutrient-rich fish and shellfish to healthier food systems.

Community-based approaches to fisheries management has emerged as a mainstream strategy to govern dispersed, diverse and dynamic small scale fisheries. However, amplifying local community led sustainability outcomes remains an enduring challenge. We seek to fill a theoretical gap in the conceptualization of ‘scaling up community-based fisheries management’. We draw on literature of agriculture innovations to provide a framework that takes into account process-driven and structural change occurring across multiple levels of governance, as well as different phases of scaling. We hypothesize that successful scaling requires engagement with all aspects of a governing regime, coalescing a range of actors, and therefore, is an enterprise that is larger than its parts. To demonstrate where the framework offers value, we illustrate the development of community-based fisheries management in Vanuatu according to the framework’s main scaling dimensions.

Community-level resource management efforts are cornerstones in ensuring sustainable use of natural resources. Yet, understanding how community characteristics influence management practices remains contested. With a sample size of ≥725 communities, we assessed the effects of key community (i.e., socioeconomic) characteristics (human population size and density, market integration, and modernization) on the probability of occurrence of fisheries management practices, including gear, species, and spatial restrictions. The study was based in Solomon Islands, a Pacific Island country with a population that is highly dependent on coastal fisheries. People primarily dwell in small communities adjacent to the coastline dispersed across 6 island provinces and numerous smaller islands. We used nationally collected data in binomial logistic regression models to examine the likelihood of management occurrence, given socioeconomic context of communities. In contrast to prevailing views, we identified a positive and statistically significant association between both human population size and market integration and all 3 management practices. Human population density, however, had a statistically significant negative association and modernization a varied and limited association with occurrence of all management practices. Our method offers a way to remotely predict the occurrence of resource management practices based on key socioeconomic characteristics. It could be used to improve understanding of why some communities conduct natural resource management activities when statistical patterns suggest they are not likely to and thus improve understanding of how some communities of people beat the odds despite limited market access and high population density.Los esfuerzos por manejar los recursos a nivel comunitario son pilares para garantizar el uso sustentable de los recursos naturales. Aun así, el conocimiento sobre cómo las características comunitarias influyen sobre las prácticas de manejo todavía está en discusión. Con un tamaño de muestra de ≥725 comunidades, evaluamos los efectos de las características (tamaño y densidad poblacional humana, integración del mercado y modernización) comunitarias (es decir, socioeconómicas) clave sobre la probabilidad de incidencia de las prácticas de manejo de las pesquerías, incluyendo el equipamiento, las especies y las restricciones espaciales. El estudio se ubicó en las Islas Salomón, un país isleño del Pacífico con una población altamente dependiente de las pesquerías costeras. En este país, las personas habitan principalmente en comunidades pequeñas adyacentes a la costa y dispersas en las seis provincias isleñas y en numerosas islas más pequeñas. Usamos datos recolectados en todo el país en unos modelos de regresión logística binomial para examinar la probabilidad de incidencia del manejo, dado el contexto socioeconómico de las comunidades. Contrario a las opiniones predominantes, identificamos una asociación positiva y estadísticamente significativa entre el tamaño poblacional humano y la integración del mercado y entre las tres prácticas de manejo. La densidad poblacional humana, sin embargo, tuvo una asociación negativa estadísticamente significativa y la modernización una asociación variada y limitada con la incidencia de las prácticas de manejo. Nuestro método ofrece una manera para predecir remotamente la incidencia de las prácticas de manejo de recursos con base en características socioeconómicas importantes. El método podría utilizarse para incrementar el conocimiento sobre cómo algunas comunidades llevan a cabo actividades de manejo de recursos naturales cuando los patrones estadísticos sugieren lo contrario y así mejorar el entendimiento de cómo algunas comunidades humanas superan todos los pronósticos a pesar del acceso limitado al mercado y la alta densidad poblacional. Evaluación de Muestras de Gran Tamaño de Pronosticadores Socioeconómicos de la Incidencia del Manejo de Recursos a Nivel Comunitario.社区水平的资源管理工作是确保自然资源可持续利用的基础。然而, 人们对于社区特征如何影响管理实践的认识尚存有争议。本研究利用超过725个社区的样本, 评估了关键社区特征 (即社会经济特征, 包括人口规模与密度、市场一体化水平、现代化水平) 对渔业管理实践 (包括对渔具、物种及空间的限制) 发生概率的影响。我们的研究地点位于所罗门群岛, 这是一个居民高度依赖沿海渔业的太平洋岛国。该地区的人口主要分散在 6个岛屿省及许多较小岛屿上邻近海岸线的小型社区中。我们利用全国数据, 构建了特定社区社会经济背景下的二项式逻辑回归模型, 以检验管理实践的发生概率。不同于主流观点, 我们发现人口规模和市场一体化水平与所有三种管理实践之间均存在统计上显著的正相关关系。然而, 人口密度与管理实践具有统计上显著的负相关关系, 而现代化与三种管理实践之间则存在不一致且有限的相关性。我们的研究方法可作为一种基于关键社会经济特征远程预测资源管理实践发生概率的工具, 有助于更好地理解为什么一些社区会在统计模型表明其不太可能开展自然资源管理活动时仍采取管理实践, 从而深入理解一些社区的人们如何在进入市场的机会有限且人口密度高的情况下战胜不利条件。【翻译:胡怡思; 审校:聂永刚】.

Multilateral consensus forged among heads of states must be value-additive and relevant at the national level to facilitate on-ground implementation. Yet, despite general optimism and advances in policy understanding, multi-scale diffusion remains a challenge with little certainty in outcomes. This study focuses on examining intermediary dynamics occurring within national policy apparatus that can influence domestic uptake of policy innovation. We analyse the anticipated spread of two supranational policies on coastal fisheries in the Pacific region – the ‘Small-Scale Fisheries Guidelines’ and ‘the New Song’ – in three countries: Kiribati, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Our approach combines instrumental perspectives on ‘policy coherence’ with cognitive–normative perspectives on ‘policy image’. Accordingly, we use two methods: a document-based comparison of the policies produced at different levels and interviews with national government officers in charge of policy deliberation and delivery. We find supranational-to-national policy coherence across most prescribed policy themes, except for emergent social themes such as ‘gender’ and ‘human rights–based approaches’. The views of government managers substantiate, and further augment, this finding. Crucially, managers' images (encompassing judgements, aspirations and convictions) represent personal and practical attributes involved in policy interpretation and implementation. Multi-scale policy diffusion is thus a translational process mediated by national-level staff, and managers' policy images offer nuanced and dynamic insights into why some policies are slow to take root while others take different shape to their agreed meanings. Analysts and policymakers must consider and mobilise translational approaches and policy images in order to understand and facilitate successful domestic implementation of international agreements.

Canned fish is a healthy alternative to the poor-quality, imported, processed foods implicated in the rise of non-communicable diseases in Pacific Island countries. Increased availability and consumption of canned fish also promises to help fill the gap between sustainable coastal fish production and recommended intake of fish for good nutrition. This study estimates the recent contribution of canned products to fish supply in Fiji, Papua New Guinea (PNG) and Solomon Islands, based on the quantities of imported and locally-produced canned fish sold on domestic markets. The greatest quantities of canned fish were sold in PNG, however, average annual consumption of canned fish per capita was highest in Fiji (8.8 ± 1.3 kg) and Solomon Islands (5.9 ± 0.6 kg), where it supplied an average of 25 ± 4% and 17 ± 2% of recommended dietary fish intake, respectively. Canned tuna comprised an average of 53 ± 2% of the canned fish consumption in Fiji and 92 ± 1% in Solomon Islands. Key actions needed to maintain/increase per capita consumption of canned fish in Pacific Island countries include promoting the health benefits of canned tuna to help combat non-communicable diseases, and facilitating distribution of locally-canned products, especially to the inland population of PNG. Increasing the market share of locally-canned tuna by assisting national canneries to obtain sufficient supplies of tuna to achieve economies of scale and compete effectively in both domestic and intra-regional canned fish trade, could create more employment and contribute indirectly to local food security.

National rates of aquatic food consumption in Pacific Island Countries and Territories are among the highest in the world, yet the region is suffering from extensive levels of diet-related ill health. The aim of this paper is to examine the variation in consumption patterns and in nutrient composition of aquatic foods in the Pacific, to help improve understanding of their contribution to food and nutrition security. For this examination we analysed nutrient composition data and trade data from two novel region-specific databases, as well as consumption data from national and village level surveys for two Melanesian case studies, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands. Results demonstrated that consumption depends on availability and the amount and type of aquatic food consumed, and its contribution to nutrition security varies within different geographic and socio-demographic contexts. More data is needed on locally relevant species and consumption patterns, to better inform dietary guidelines and improve public health both now and into the future. Advice on aquatic food consumption must consider the nutrient composition and quantity of products consumed, as well as accessibility through local food systems, to ensure they contribute to diverse and healthy diets.

Two species of Centrostephanus occur in Australasia, C. rodgersii and C. tenuispinus. Centrostephanus rodgersii is ecologically important in southeastern Australian rocky reefs where its grazing activity results in a mosaic of barrens and macroalgal habitats and because it has extended its range into Tasmania and New Zealand. This has been facilitated by larval transport in the East Australia Current. Despite its ecological similarity to C. rodgersii, C. tenuispinus does not form extensive barres. It is not known if this is due to different characteristics of the two species or of their environment. The creation, persistence and demise of C. rodgersii barrens is a major ecological dynamic in southeastern Australia. Affinity for shelter and nocturnal foraging underlie the mechanism of barrens formation by C. rodgersii. Investigation of the impacts of its range extension has generated major advances in understanding the biology and ecology of C. rodgersii. In Tasmania lobsters and fishes modulate the success of C. rodgersii and creation of barrens habitat. It could be argued that historically, predators in New South Wales played a greater role in regulating sea urchin populations.

Livelihood diversification has been the heartbeat of rural development projects over the past two decades. Many livelihood diversification programs are based on the often implicit assumption that introducing livelihood activities will translate into improved livelihood outcomes. In this study we analyze survey data from 235 households in Langalanga Lagoon, Solomon Islands. We explore relationships between household livelihoods and food security to guide the types of activities that may be appropriate for rural development planning. Results show high rates of food insecurity, where half of the surveyed households were moderately food insecure and a quarter of households severely food insecure. Importantly, we do not find any links between household livelihoods activities and food security; households valued livelihoods very differently. We discuss the implications of these findings for rural development planning.

Voluntary (or non-binding) commitments offer an action-oriented mechanism for addressing interconnected, complex and pressing issues. Though not designed to replace negotiated or binding outcomes, voluntary commitments can offer a critical tool in currently ungoverned or under-governed systems. The Blue Economy is an example of a rapidly evolving agenda where formal governance arrangements are at best nascent, in part due to the trans-border nature of issues and prominent involvement of multiple types of actors. As such voluntary commitments provide an important mechanism through which to monitor the evolution of the concept and identify gaps or shortfalls in its implementation. Our analysis of global voluntary commitments on the Blue Economy made to recent high-profile ocean futures meetings, found a trend towards capacity development, research, and investment in emerging and larger scale sectors such as offshore aquaculture and renewable energy. A concurrent focus was on securitizing, regulating or diverting effort from historically significant fisheries sectors. European organizations are playing a dominant role in Blue Economy commitments, with a notable absence of commitments from major Blue Economy powers such as China and India. We identify a number of gaps and shortfalls, particularly in relation to active consideration of social equity in the Blue Economy. We identify a range of recommendations on how these deficiencies may be addressed through a greater focus on a broader suite of objectives and a more inclusive approach to ocean meetings.

Extensive literature describes the importance of food environments (FEs) as a driver of food choices and nutrition outcomes, yet existing FE frameworks do not adequately capture the diversity of FEs relevant to the Pacific Region. This limits identification of opportunities in food systems to reduce the multiple burden of malnutrition. We present a conceptual typology of FEs including six primary FEs relevant in the Pacific, wild, cultivated, kin and community, informal retail, formal retail, and food aid and services. We then apply this typology to food acquisition data from Solomon Islands 2012/13 Household Income and Expenditure Survey and analyse the relationship between FEs and diet quality. The cultivated FE accounts for 60% of the quantity of food acquired nationally, followed by wild (15%), kin and community (9%), and formal and informal retail FEs (8% each), with wide variation between urban and rural households, provinces and wealth groups. Reliance on different FEs is a significant predictor of diet quality and affirms the importance of subsistence fisheries and agriculture, and community and kinship networks. Integration of a FE typology such as the one presented here in commonly conducted household expenditure surveys offers significant opportunity to advance our understanding of food system leverage points to improve nutrition and health.

Recognized as an emerging global crisis in the mid-1990s, the “nutrition transition” is marked by a shift to Western diets, dominated by highly processed, sugar-sweetened, and high caloric foods. Occurring in parallel to these health transitions are dramatic shifts in the natural systems that underlie food availability and access. Traditionally, environmental degradation and ecosystem change, and processes of nutritional transition, though often collinear and potentially causally linked, have been addressed in isolation. Food systems represent an emblematic social-ecological system, as both cultivated and wild foods are directly reliant on natural ecosystems and their processes. While healthy ecosystems are a necessary precondition of food production, they are not themselves sufficient to ensure continued benefits from local food systems. Mediating between food production and nutritional security are myriad governance and market institutions that shape differential access to food resources. Moreover, globalization and urbanization may shift communities from non-market to market-based economies, with profound implications for local environments and food systems. Specifically, we argue that it is this feedback between coupled socioeconomic and natural dynamics within food systems that reinforces specific nutritional outcomes, and may result in a social-ecological trap. Here, we use the case of reef-based food systems globally, paying particular attention to the Pacific to showcase social-ecological traps present in global food systems, and to illustrate how such traps lead to the acceleration of the nutrition transition. Improving both nutritional and environmental outcomes of food systems requires understanding the underlying drivers of each, and how they interact and reinforce each other. Only in recognizing these interactions and coupled dynamics will economic, governance, and environmental policies be positioned to address these food system challenges in an integrated fashion.

Interacting social and ecological processes shape productivity and sustainability of island small-scale fisheries (SSF). Understanding limits to productivity through historical catches help frame future expectations and management strategies, but SSF are dispersed and unaccounted, so long-term standardized data are largely absent for such analyses. We analysed 40 years of trade statistics of a SSF product that enter international markets (sea cucumber) from 14 Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICT) against response variables to test predictors of fishery production: (i) scale, (ii) productivity and (iii) socio-economics. Combined production in PICT peaked over 20 years ago, driven by exploitation trends in Melanesia that accounted for 90% of all production since 1971. The size of island fisheries (as measured by total exports), and the duration and magnitude of fishery booms were most influenced by ungovernable environmental variables, in particular land area. The large and high islands of Melanesia sustained larger booms over longer periods than atoll nations. We hypothesize that land area is a proxy for land-based nutrient availability and habitat diversity, and therefore the productivity of the shallow water areas where SSF are operating. PICT need to tailor management based on the intrinsic productivity of shallow inshore habitats: harvests from atoll nations will need to be smaller per unit area than at the high islands. Particularly countries with low productivity fisheries must consider the crucial economic “safety nets” that export SSF make up for dispersed island populations and incorporate them into broader development and island resilience strategies.

Coastal fisheries provide staple food and sources of livelihood in Pacific Island countries, and securing a sustainable supply is recognised as a critical priority for nutrition security. This study sought to better understand the role of fish for Pacific Island communities during disasters and in disaster recovery. To evaluate community impacts and responses after natural disasters, focus group discussions were held with men and women groups at ten sites across Shefa, Tafea, Malampa and Sanma provinces in Vanuatu. The combined impacts of category 5 Tropical Cyclone Pam (TC-Pam) in March 2015 and prolonged El-Nino induced drought have had a profound impact across much of Vanuatu. Terrestrial systems had been disproportionately impacted with substantial shortages in drinking water, garden crops, cash crops and damage to infrastructure. Localized impacts were noted on marine environments from TC-Pam and the drought, along with an earthquake that uplifted reef and destroyed fishing grounds in Malampa province. Communities in Malampa and Shefa provinces also noted a crown-of-thorns outbreak that caused coral mortality. The significant reduction in terrestrial-based food and income generation capacity generally led to increased reliance on marine resources to cope and a shift in diets from local garden food to rice. However, limited market access, lack of fishing skills and technology in many sectors of the community reduced the capacity for marine resources to support recovery. A flexible management approach allowed protected areas and species to be utilized as reservoirs of food and income when temporarily opened to assist recovery. These findings illustrate that fish and fisheries management is at the center of disaster preparedness and relief strategies in remote Pacific Island communities. High physical capital (e.g. infrastructure, water tanks and strong dwellings) is key for disaster preparedness, but supporting community social capital for the purpose of natural resource management and human capital for diverse adaptation skills can also improve community resilience. Recognizing the humanitarian value that well managed fisheries resources and skilled fishers can play to disaster relief adds another dimension to the imperative of improving management of coastal fisheries and aligning policies across sectors.

Community-based fisheries management (CBFM) is held up as one of the most promising approaches for securing sustainable small-scale fisheries. Yet, the complex features that shape CBFM outcomes remain inadequately understood. In part, this stems from the fact that few community-based projects meet the data requirements for formal impact evaluations. Given this context, diagnostic approaches are increasingly seen as a frontier for strengthening CBFM analysis and securing small-scale fisheries sustainability. This study explores the capacity of Elinor Ostrom's social-ecological systems (SES) framework to strengthen post-hoc diagnosis of CBFM. It draws on data from published and grey literature (including field notes, meeting minutes, and project reports) generated throughout an eight-year CBFM project in five Solomon Island villages. Results suggest that successful CBFM outcomes were facilitated by effective information sharing, harvesting rules that merge traditional and contemporary practices, strong leadership, and resource monitoring, while uneven power differentials undermined positive outcomes. The paper argues that the SES framework can add analytical rigour to post-hoc analysis when it used to: 1) engage with temporal dynamics that shape CBFM processes; 2) integrate insights from plural theories, and 3) explore interactions between multiple CBFM outcomes. Ultimately, the paper argues that diagnostic applications of the SES framework can contribute towards conducting more systematic analysis of diverse CBFM data, improving CBRM practices, and realizing more sustainable small-scale fisheries

The coastal zones of Small Island States are hotspots of human habitation and economic endeavour. In the Pacific region, as elsewhere, there are large gaps in understandings of the exposure and vulnerability of people in coastal zones. The 22 Pacific Countries and Territories (PICTs) are poorly represented in global analyses of vulnerability to seaward risks. We combine several data sources to estimate populations to zones 1, 5 and 10 km from the coastline in each of the PICTs. Regional patterns in the proximity of Pacific people to the coast are dominated by Papua New Guinea. Overall, ca. half the population of the Pacific resides within 10 km of the coast but this jumps to 97% when Papua New Guinea is excluded. A quarter of Pacific people live within 1 km of the coast, but without PNG this increases to slightly more than half. Excluding PNG, 90% of Pacific Islanders live within 5 km of the coast. All of the population in the coral atoll nations of Tokelau and Tuvalu live within a km of the ocean. Results using two global datasets, the SEDAC-CIESIN Gridded Population of the World v4 (GPWv4) and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Landscan differed: Landscan under-dispersed population, overestimating numbers in urban centres and underestimating population in rural areas and GPWv4 over-dispersed the population. In addition to errors introduced by the allocation models of the two methods, errors were introduced as artefacts of allocating households to 1 km x 1 km grid cell data (30 arc-seconds) to polygons. The limited utility of LandScan and GPWv4 in advancing this analysis may be overcome with more spatially resolved census data and the inclusion of elevation above sea level as an important dimension of vulnerability.

Compare estimates of the numbers of people living within 1, 5, and 10 km from the coast in Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs). These distances are somewhat arbitrary, but in the absence of generally agreed definitions of the ‘coastal zone’ and of more integrated analyses that include elevation above sea level, livelihood portfolios and other measure of exposure to the ocean, they provide a logical basis for the analyses. Three coastal zones at 1, 5, and 10 km were mapped onto every populated island for each PICT. People residing within 1 km were considered to live on the coast, those within 5 km included those who could still easily walk to the coast and 10 km, those who interact with coastal communities (e.g. in terms of access to markets or other activities) and who would be able to easily get to the coast with some form of transport. The two global datasets used to spatially distribute populations were the SEDAC-CIESIN Gridded Population of the World v4 and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory LandScan™. GPWv4 is a minimally modelled population dataset that uniformly distributes census data from their native enumeration areas. LandScan™ allocates population census data using dasymetric cartographic techniques relying on ancillary data such as land cover, roads, terrain slope, urban extent, and accessibility to model population density at 30 arc-second grid resolution within administrative boundaries. Both global datasets distributed populations within enumeration areas to 30 arc second cells (approximate 1 km2 at the Equator). The following protocol explains the workflow used to calculate the Coastal Population Estimates for PICTs. The protocol involves three main steps: Generation of 1, 5 and 10 km coastal buffers Spatial disaggregation of the census population datasets using one of the three methods based on data availability. This step is not applicable for the global population grids. Overlay the coastal buffer mask on the disaggregated population datasets and sum the population contained within the coastal buffers to calculate the percentage of the country’s population within each of the three coastal zones.

Value chains are key pathways within food systems and an important focus for analysis and policy intervention. A systematic scoping review was used to examine how different value chain approaches consider food security and nutrition, with particular attention to examples of how these approaches can simultaneously address additional social, economic or environmental outcomes. Value chain research on food security and nutrition addressed multiple outcomes within the social dimension, and across social and economic dimensions, although few studies incorporated the environmental dimension. While current value chain approaches are useful to parse out problems within a food system, they may miss opportunities for more integrated analyses, particularly in integrating sustainability dimensions.

Participatory diagnosis is an approach to identify, prioritize and mobilise around factors that constrain or enable effective governance and management in small-scale fisheries. Diagnostic frameworks are mostly designed and used for systematic scientific analysis or impact evaluation. Through participation they also have potential to guide contextually informed improvements to management in practice, including transitions to contemporary forms of governance like the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF)—the focus of our study. We document and critically reflect on participatory diagnosis processes and outcomes at sites in Indonesia, Philippines, Solomon Islands and Tanzania. These sites were part of an international project on the implementation of the EAF and differed widely in institutional and operational contexts. The Participatory Diagnosis and Adaptive Management framework and the “issue radar” diagnosis map were used to identify, evaluate and address factors associated with navigating management transitions towards the EAF. We found that many challenges and priority actions identified by participants were similar across the four study countries. Participants emphasized habitat restoration, particularly mangrove rehabilitation, and livelihood enhancement. The importance of strengthening governance entities, networks and processes (e.g., harmonization of policies, education and awareness of policies) was also a prominent outcome of the diagnosis. Site-specific factors were also explored together with the differing views among stakeholders. We conclude that diagnosis frameworks are indeed useful tools for guiding management transitions in fisheries, particularly where they enable flexibility in approaches to diagnosing problems and applying solutions to local contexts.

Coastal communities in regions like the Pacific have been impacted by COVID-19 related public health measures that limit the movement of people, trade and access to resources. In disaster-prone countries, like Vanuatu, such measures add to existing pressures on coastal communities’ adaptive capacity. To understand how coastal communities in Vanuatu were impacted in the immediate period after COVID-19 measures were placed, and how people responded to the changing circumstances, a rapid appraisal survey was carried out following a nationally declared state of emergency in March 2020. Results reveal changes in village population, loss of cash income, difficulties in accessing food and shifting pressures on particular resources and habitats. The findings provide insights into the ways local adaptive capacity to satisfy livelihood and food security needs differed among rural contexts. From this we argue that broad quantitative impact assessments are important in guiding strategic and longer term responses and adaptations, but that these are made more useful when complemented with qualitative insights on people and place in the short-term., Highlights • Local context and compounding disruptions determined the severity of early COVID-19 impacts on coastal communities. • Livelihood dependence on cash economy (e.g. inter-island trade) formed a vulnerability under COVID-19 measures. • During disruptions, coastal communities relied primarily on home gardens for food, and on fish as a fall-back food source. • COVID-19 measures led to disproportionately more fishing in inshore zones in some coastal communities.

Global seafood sourcing networks are expanding to meet demand. To describe contemporary fishery expansion patterns, we analyzed the worldwide exploitation of sea cucumber (Echinodermata: Holothuroidea) traded via Hong Kong for consumers in China. In just 15 years (1996–2011), the sea cucumber sourcing network expanded from 35 to 83 countries; sea cucumber fisheries serving the Chinese market now operate within countries cumulatively spanning over 90% of the world's tropical coastlines. The emergence of such fisheries in nations where they were previously absent could not be explained either by their national governance capacity or by their distance from Hong Kong. Surging imports from these new fisheries have compensated for declines in long-standing fisheries elsewhere. The case of commercial sea cucumber trade for the Chinese market exemplifies a new global extraction phenomenon that we call contagious resource exploitation – a fast-moving system resembling a disease epidemic, where long-distance transp...

The large tuna resources of the Western and Central Pacific Ocean are delivering great economic benefits to Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs) through sale of licences to distant water fishing nations and employment in fish processing. However, tuna needs to contribute to Pacific Island societies in another important way—by increasing local access to the fish required for good nutrition to help combat the world’s highest levels of diabetes and obesity. Analyses reported here demonstrate that coastal fisheries in 16 of the 22 PICTs will not provide the fish recommended for good nutrition of growing Pacific Island populations, and that by 2020 tuna will need to supply 12% of the fish required by PICTs for food security, increasing to 25% by 2035. In relative terms, the percentages of the region’s tuna catch that will be needed in 2020 and 2035 to fill the gap in domestic fish supply are small, i.e., 2.1% and 5.9% of the average present-day industrial catch, respectively. Interventions based on expanding the use of nearshore fish aggregating devices (FADs) to assist small-scale fishers catch tuna, distributing small tuna and bycatch offloaded by industrial fleets at regional ports, and improving access to canned tuna for inland populations, promise to increase access to fish for sustaining the health of the region’s growing populations. The actions, research and policies required to implement these interventions effectively, and the investments needed to maintain the stocks underpinning the considerable socio-economic benefits that flow from tuna, are described.

Resilience thinking is an important addition to the range of frameworks and approaches that can be used to understand and manage complex social–ecological systems like small-scale fisheries. However, it is yet to lead to better environmental or development outcomes for fisheries stakeholders in terms of food security, improved livelihoods and ecological sustainability. This paper takes an empirical approach by focusing on the fundamentals of resilience thinking to evaluate its usefulness in developing relevant management interventions in small-scale fisheries in the Niger River Basin in West Africa. The paper presents the outputs of a participatory assessment exercise where both fishery communities and local experts were involved at two different scales. The resilience frame used was designed to facilitate the identification of socially defined thresholds that help delineate the desirability of the current system configuration and provides a diagnosis framework that tailors management solutions to problems in local context. The analysis highlights some key contributions from resilience thinking to the challenge of diagnosis in small-scale fisheries management in developing countries, as well as important contributions that emerge from taking a pragmatic and critical approach to its application.

Successful management of socio-ecological systems not only requires the development and field-testing of robust and measurable indices of vulnerability and resilience but also improved understanding of the contextual factors that influence societal capacity to adapt to change. We present the results of an analysis conducted in three coastal communities in Solomon Islands. An integrated assessment map was used to systematically scan the communities’ multiple dimensions of vulnerability and to identify factors affecting households’ perception about their capacity to cope with shocks (resilience). A multivariate probit approach was used to explore relationships amongst factors. Social processes such as community cohesion, good leadership, and individual support to collective action were critical factors influencing the perception that people had about their community's ability to build resilience and cope with change. The analysis also suggests a growing concern for a combination of local (internal) and more global (external) contingencies and shocks, such as the erosion of social values and fear of climate change.

Fishing communities are often recognised as being amongst the poorest in developing countries, and interventions targeted at improving resource status seen as central in the fight against poverty. A series of field assessments focusing on vulnerability conducted in two communities in Mali and Nigeria revealed some counterintuitive results. Despite fishing being the primary livelihood, vulnerabilities relating directly to the state of the resource were ranked lower than those relating to basic human needs. Those results challenge the conventional view and suggest that non-sectoral interventions can have more effective impacts on the livelihood of those communities than interventions targeting the resources. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Lake Chilwa produces between zero and 24,000 metric tons of fish per year, making it one of the most productive but variable lakes in Africa. The size of the lake varies seasonally and among years, sometimes drying completely. Its surrounding wetland and floodplain provide habitat for a diversity of birds and economically valuable grasses and reeds. When the lake has water, there is considerable activity on its shores and temporary fishing villages spring up. People move in and out of the lake basin in concert with these seasonal and longer term changes. This paper examines the environmental dynamics of Lake Chilwa and its surrounding wetlands, presents an overview of the socio-economic context of the area and discusses threats to this resilient system that might occur as a result of climate change. We conclude that management of Lake Chilwa must place the lake in the wider economic and ecological system in which it is situated. Ultimately, land-use practices within the basin present more of a threat to the resilience of the fishery and people's livelihoods than overfishing or a strict focus on the lake's resources. These perspectives present significant challenges to conventional fisheries governance.

The social and economic importance of small-scale fisheries is frequently under-valued, and they are rarely effectively managed. There is now growing consensus on how these fisheries could be managed for sustainability and to minimize the risks of crossing undesirable thresholds. Using a concept developed in health care, these approaches have been referred to as primary fisheries management. By encouraging the use of best-available information in a precautionary way, the approaches will facilitate sustainable use and should therefore be encouraged, but they accept high scientific and implementation uncertainties as unavoidable because of limited management and enforcement resources and capacity. It is important to recognize that this limitation will result in social costs, because application of a precautionary approach in the face of high uncertainties will require forgoing potential sustainable benefits. Acceptance of primary fisheries management as a final and sufficient goal could therefore add a further constraint on the possibility of fishing communities escaping the poverty trap. Primary fisheries management should be seen as a first and minimum target for fisheries where there is currently no or inadequate management, but the longer-term goal should still be well informed and adaptive management that strives for optimal benefits, referred to here as tertiary management.

Marine reserves exhibit increases in targeted fish species, but long-term effects on biodiversity are poorly understood. Factors other than reserve status may affect decadal changes, including environmental change. We examined the fish fauna at the iconic Poor Knights Islands over 4 decades (1974–2016) before and after implementation of a no-take marine reserve in 1998. We document a substantial increase in commercially and recreationally targeted Chrysophrys auratus, which was virtually absent before 1994 but by 2016 had reached up to 11 fish per 500m2 (220 per hectare). There were also large changes to the fish community, including the decline of subtropical and coastal wrasses, some species with no change and others that increased significantly. Many declines occurred >20 years before the arrival of abundant C. auratus, suggesting the changes do not represent a trophic cascade. Furthermore, this normally benthic-feeding fish has adopted a mid-water foraging behaviour targeting planktivorous fish. The increase in C. auratus appears to be linked both to reserve status and catch regulations in the wider region. Overall, the data point to long-term environmental fluctuations from the late 1970s having a negative effect on the abundance of more than half the reef fish species at these islands.

Anthropogenic global warming has significantly influenced physical and biological processes at global and regional scales. The observed and anticipated changes in global climate present significant opportunities and challenges for societies and economies. We compare the vulnerability of 132 national economies to potential climate change impacts on their capture fisheries using an indicator-based approach. Countries in Central and Western Africa (e.g. Malawi, Guinea, Senegal, and Uganda), Peru and Colombia in north-western South America, and four tropical Asian countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan, and Yemen) were identified as most vulnerable. This vulnerability was due to the combined effect of predicted warming, the relative importance of fisheries to national economies and diets, and limited societal capacity to adapt to potential impacts and opportunities. Many vulnerable countries were also among the world’s least developed countries whose inhabitants are among the world’s poorest and twice as reliant on fish, which provides 27% of dietary protein compared to 13% in less vulnerable countries. These countries also produce 20% of the world’s fish exports and are in greatest need of adaptation planning to maintain or enhance the contribution that fisheries can make to poverty reduction. Although the precise impacts and direction of climate-driven change for particular fish stocks and fisheries are uncertain, our analysis suggests they are likely to lead to either increased economic hardship or missed opportunities for development in countries that depend upon fisheries but lack the capacity to adapt.

The contemporary legal regime for marine capture fisheries is dominated by management based on maximum sustainable yield (MSY). This study examines the law, science, politics and practice of MSY in a selection of developing archipelagic states to assess whether and how MSY is being used in the management of single fish species and as part of a broader ecosystem approach to fisheries management.

Predicting the dynamics of ecosystems requires an understanding of how trophic interactions respond to environmental change. In Antarctic marine ecosystems, food web dynamics are inextricably linked to sea ice conditions that affect the nature and magnitude of primary food sources available to higher trophic levels. Recent attention on the changing sea ice conditions in polar seas highlights the need to better understand how marine food webs respond to changes in such broad-scale environmental drivers. This study investigated the importance of sea ice and advected primary food sources to the structure of benthic food webs in coastal Antarctica. We compared the isotopic composition of several seafloor taxa (including primary producers and invertebrates with a variety of feeding modes) that are widely distributed in the Antarctic. We assessed shifts in the trophic role of numerically dominant benthic omnivores at five coastal Ross Sea locations. These locations vary in primary productivity and food availability, due to their different levels of sea ice cover, and proximity to polynyas and advected primary production. The delta15N signatures and isotope mixing model results for the bivalves Laternula elliptica and Adamussium colbecki and the urchin Sterechinus neumeyeri indicate a shift from consumption of a higher proportion of detritus at locations with more permanent sea ice in the south to more freshly produced algal material associated with proximity to ice-free water in the north and east. The detrital pathways utilized by many benthic species may act to dampen the impacts of large seasonal fluctuations in the availability of primary production. The limiting relationship between sea ice distribution and in situ primary productivity emphasizes the role of connectivity and spatial subsidies of organic matter in fueling the food web. Our results begin to provide a basis for predicting how benthic ecosystems will respond to changes in sea ice persistence and extent along environmental gradients in the high Antarctic.

Small-scale fisheries (SSF) make important but undervalued contributions to the economies of some of the world’s poorest countries. They also provide much of the animal protein needed by societies in which food security remains a pressing issue. Assessment and management of these fisheries is usually inadequate or absent and they continue to fall short of their potential as engines for development and social change. In this study, we bring together existing theory and methods to suggest a general scheme for diagnosing and managing SSF. This approach can be adapted to accommodate the diversity of these fisheries in the developing world. Many threats and solutions to the problems that beset SSF come from outside the domain of the fishery. Significant improvements in prospects for fisheries will require major changes in societal priorities and values, with consequent improvements in policy and governance. Changes in development policy and science reflect these imperatives but there remains a need for intra-sectoral management that builds resilience and reduces vulnerability to those forces beyond the influence of small-scale fishers.

Inshore marine resources play an important role in the livelihoods of Pacific Island coastal communities. However, such reliance can be detrimental to inshore marine ecosystems. Understanding the livelihoods of coastal communities is important for devising relevant and effective fisheries management strategies. Semi-structured household interviews were conducted with householders in Langalanga Lagoon, Solomon Islands, to understand household livelihoods and resource governance in fishing-dependent communities. Households were engaged in a diverse range of livelihoods. Fishing, shell money production and gardening were the most important livelihoods. Proximity to an urban centre influenced how households accessed some livelihoods. Perceptions of management rules varied and different reasons were cited for why rules were broken, the most common reason being to meet livelihood needs. Current models of inshore small-scale fisheries management that are based on the notion of community-based resource management may not work in locations where customary management systems are weak and livelihoods are heavily reliant on marine resources. An important step for fisheries management in such locations should include elucidating community priorities through participatory development planning, taking into consideration livelihoods as well as governance and development aspirations.

It is widely recognised that anchored, nearshore fish aggregating devices (FADs) are one of the few practical ‘vehicles’ for increasing access to tuna to help feed the rapidly growing rural and urban populations in many Pacific Island countries and territories (PICTs). However, considerable planning, monitoring and research is still needed to understand and fulfil the potential of nearshore FADs. Investments are required to (1) identify the locations where FADs are likely to make the greatest contributions to the food security of rural (coastal) communities, and yield good catches near urban centres; (2) integrate the use of FADs with other livelihood options available to rural communities and remove any blockages preventing such communities from harnessing the full range of benefits from FADs; (3) assess whether exclusion zones for industrial fishing provide adequate access to tuna for small-scale-fishers; (4) determine if small-scale fishers are able to catch sufficient tuna to meet the protein needs of rural communities; (5) evaluate whether FADs add value to coral reef management initiatives; and (6) improve the design and placement of nearshore FADs. This paper describes these investments and outlines other steps that governments and their development partners need to take to establish and maintain nearshore FADs as part of national infrastructure for food security of PICTs.

A field study of Lessonia variegata growing in depths of 8–10 m on the south coast of Wellington, New Zealand investigated morphometric and biomass indices measured on destructively harvested entire algae, rates of blade elongation measured in situ using a blade hole punch technique, and timing of fertility over a 2‐year period. Blade fertility was estimated using a fertility score based on the visual appearance of the reproductive tissue. Lessonia variegata attained a maximum length of 154 cm, a density of 0.8 to 2.1 individuals m‐2, and developed an areal biomass ranging from 1700 to 6000 g fresh weight (FW) m‐2. The highest proportion of fertile blades (up to 100% of sampled blades) occurred during winter and the end of the fertile period coincided with the onset of the longer days and warmer temperatures of summer. Blade elongation occurred more rapidly in summer months (0.117cm day‐1, SE = 0.015) than winter months (0.041cm day‐1, SE = 0.009). The slower winter blade elongation rate meant th...

Photosynthetic characteristics of the red macroalgae Phyllophora antarctica and Phymatolithon foecundum collected from under sea ice at Cape Evans, McMurdo Sound (Ross Sea) were determined using in situ fluorometric and lab-based oxygen exchange techniques. Only 0.16% of incident irradiance penetrated the 2.5 m thick ice cover and photosynthetic parameters for both taxa were characteristic of highly shade-adapted plants. Saturation onset parameter (E k) did not exceed 13 μmol photons m-2 s-1 in either taxon. For Phyllophora antarctica the light saturated photosynthetic rate at –1°C was 10 μmol O2 g-1 FW h-1 and respiration averaged 3.3 μmol O2 g-1 FW h-1 between sampled depths of 10 and 25 m. A light meter deployed at 15 m depth for a year recorded a marked increase in underwater irradiance on the last day of January 2002 coinciding with ice-breakout, and a maximum value for irradiance of 120 μmol photons m-2 s-1 on 9 February 2002. The 2-month ice-free period was the only time when irradiance consistently exceeded compensation (photosynthesis=respiration) and enabled Phyllophora antarctica to accumulate sufficient carbon to result in a measurable increase in thallus area equivalent to a biomass increment of 1.87 mg (DW) per frond. Near the southern global limit for marine macroalgae, conditions that dictate the availability of underwater irradiance are extremely variable from year to year. Low respiration rates enhance longevity of the Phyllophora antarctica thallus, enabling it to not only survive the winter darkness, but also to retain photosynthetic capacity and thus take advantage of windows of higher irradiance.

Fish aggregating devices, or FADs, are used widely in developing countries to concentrate pelagic fish, making them easier to catch. Nearshore FADs anchored close to the coast allow access for rural communities, but despite their popularity among policy makers, there is a dearth of empirical analysis of their contributions to the supply of fish and to fisheries management. In this paper we demonstrate that nearshore FADs increased the supply of fish to four communities in Solomon Islands. Estimated total annual fish catch ranged from 4300 to 12,000 kg across the study villages, with nearshore FADs contributing up to 45% of the catch. While it is clear that FADs increased the supply of fish, FAD catch rates were not consistently higher than other fishing grounds. Villages with limited access to diverse or productive fishing grounds seemingly utilized FADs to better effect. Villagers believed FADs increased household income and nutrition, as well as providing a source of fish for community events. FADs were also perceived to increase intra-household conflict and reduce fishers' participation in community activities. FADs need to be placed within a broader rural development context and treated as another component in the diversified livelihoods of rural people; as with other livelihood options they bring trade-offs and risks.

The crisis of global overfishing has been widely covered in both the scientific literature and the popular media over the last decade. However, with his recent film The End of the Line (Murray 2009), Rupert Murray tells the story with unprecedented power. Heralded as the “Inconvenient Truth” for fisheries—a reference to David Guggenheim’s influential film on the perils of climate change—The End of the Line provides a rich, well-argued and sobering picture of how people, the oceans' top predator, have brought many of the worlds fisheries to collapse.

Reproduction in the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii was examined in two types of habitats (“barrens”, i.e. habitats characterised by the high crustose coralline algal cover typical of urchin-barren grounds, and by the absence of macroalgae; and “fringe”, i.e. habitats characterised by a high macroalgal biomass and few C. rodgersii) at four locations in New South Wales. The four locations: the Solitary Islands, Sydney, Ulladulla and Eden, span the distribution of C.␣rodgersii from the subtropics at its northern limit to temperate waters near its southern limit. Histology and estimates of gonad retrieval rate (GRR) from January 1994 to October 1995 indicated that reproduction was synchronous at all locations. An increase in the tempo of gametogenesis in May and onset of spawning in June at all locations is consistent with entrainment in response to exogenous factors. Over the range studied, C. rodgersii experienced relatively similar daylength cycles and contrasting sea-temperature cycles. Short days and lunar conditions coinciding with the solstice appear likely proximate cues for the onset of spawning. The major difference in reproduction among locations was in the duration of spawning. In the southern parts of its range breeding occurred over a 5 to 6 mo period, whereas at the Solitary Islands it lasted ≃1 mo. At most locations the GRRs were significantly higher in the fringe habitat than in the barrens habitat. The lower reproductive output of urchins in the barrens habitat was attributed to the food-poor conditions typical of this habitat. The developing fishery for C. rodgersii is likely to be most effective from March to early May. Urchins from barrens areas may not provide sufficient yield to warrant harvesting.