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Purpose: Walking is a complex locomotor process that involves both spinal cord reflexes and cortical integration of peripheral nerve input. Maintaining an upright body position requires not only neuromuscular activity but also cardiovascular regulation. We postulated that plantar mechanical stimulation might modulate autonomic nervous system activity and, thereby, impact blood pressure adaptation during standing., Methods: Twelve healthy subjects underwent three randomly ordered 45-min 70°-saddle tilt tests while the plantar surfaces of the feet were stimulated using specially engineered Korvit boots in the following modes: (1) no stimulation, (2) disrupted stimulation, and (3) walking mode. Orthostatic tolerance time was measured for each trial. During testing, we obtained an electrocardiogram and measured blood pressure, skin blood flow, and popliteal vein cross-sectional area. We estimated central hemodynamics, baroreflex sensitivity and heart rate variability., Results: Orthostatic tolerance time was not found to differ significantly between test conditions (37.2 ± 10.4, 40.9 ± 7.6, and 41.8 ± 8.2 min, for no stimulation, disrupted stimulation, and walking mode, respectively). No significant differences between treatment groups were observed for stroke volume or cardiac baroreflex sensitivity, both of which decreased significantly from baseline during tilt testing in all groups. Cardiac sympathetic index and popliteal vein cross-sectional area increased at the end of the tilt period in all groups, without significant differences between treatments., Conclusions: Plantar mechanical stimulation is insufficient for immediate modulation of cardiac sympathetic and parasympathetic activity under orthostatic stress.

Purpose: Chinese herbal medicine is a promising countermeasure against cardiovascular dysfunction associated with a sedentary lifestyle. We examined the impact of the Chinese herb, Taikong Yangxin, on the micro- and macrovascular dysfunction associated with a 60-day bed rest., Methods: Fourteen healthy men were randomly divided into two groups: those given herbal supplement, and the control group; the two groups underwent a 60-day bed rest. The macrovasculature was assessed by sonography. Skin microvascular functions were assessed with laser Doppler. The plasma level of endothelial microparticles (EMPs), markers of endothelial injury, was determined., Results: Bed rest induced a 33 % decrease in the femoral artery diameter and compliance whereas carotid wall thickness, diameter, and compliance remained unchanged. The early phase of endothelium-dependent vasodilation to ACh was unmodified by bed rest, while the late phase was reduced by 30 % along with a twofold increase in EMPs. In those given Taikong Yangxin, the early phase was amplified by 2.5-fold, and the effects of bed rest on the late phase were prevented., Conclusion: These findings indicate that Taikong Yangxin ameliorates endothelium-dependent vasodilation, likely by improving the NO pathway. The study suggests Taikong Yangxin as a new countermeasure to prevent the changes in microvascular function induced by physical inactivity.

Immersion is a useful tool for studying fluid-volume homeostasis. Natriuretic peptides play a vital role in renal, humoral, and cardiovascular regulation under changing environmental conditions. We hypothesized that dry immersion would rapidly induce a new steady state for water and sodium metabolism, and that serum NT-proBNP levels, a proxy measure for brain natriuretic peptide (BNP), would decrease during long-term dry immersion and increase during recovery. Eight healthy young men were studied before, during, and after 7 days of dry immersion. Body weight, water balance, and plasma volume changes were evaluated. Plasma and serum samples were analyzed for active renin, NT-proBNP, aldosterone, electrolytes, osmolality, total protein, and creatinine. Urine samples were analyzed to determine levels of electrolytes, osmolality, creatinine, and free cortisol. A stand test was performed before and after dry immersion to evaluate cardiovascular deconditioning. Long-term dry immersion induced acute changes in water and sodium homeostasis on day 1, followed by a new steady state. Plasma volume decreased significantly during dry immersion. The serum levels of NT-proBNP increased significantly in recovery (10 ± 3 ng/L before dry immersion vs. 26 ± 5 ng/L on the fourth recovery day). Heart rate in the standing position was significantly greater after immersion. Results suggest that chronic dry immersion rapidly induced a new level of water-electrolyte homeostasis. The increase in NT-proBNP levels during the recovery period may be related to greater cardiac work and might reflect the degree of cardiovascular deconditioning.

Dry immersion, which is a ground-based model of prolonged conditions of microgravity, is widely used in Russia but is less well known elsewhere. Dry immersion involves immersing the subject in thermoneutral water covered with an elastic waterproof fabric. As a result, the immersed subject, who is freely suspended in the water mass, remains dry. For a relatively short duration, the model can faithfully reproduce most physiological effects of actual microgravity, including centralization of body fluids, support unloading, and hypokinesia. Unlike bed rest, dry immersion provides a unique opportunity to study the physiological effects of the lack of a supporting structure for the body (a phenomenon we call 'supportlessness'). In this review, we attempt to provide a detailed description of dry immersion. The main sections of the paper discuss the changes induced by long-term dry immersion in the neuromuscular and sensorimotor systems, fluid-electrolyte regulation, the cardiovascular system, metabolism, blood and immunity, respiration, and thermoregulation. The long-term effects of dry immersion are compared with those of bed rest and actual space flight. The actual and potential uses of dry immersion are discussed in the context of fundamental studies and applications for medical support during space flight and terrestrial health care.

Actual and simulated microgravity induces hypovolemia and cardiovascular deconditioning, associated with vascular dysfunction. We hypothesized that vasoconstriction of skin microcirculatory bed should be altered following 7 days of simulated microgravity in order to maintain cardiovascular homeostasis during active standing. Eight healthy men were studied before and after 7 days of simulated microgravity modeled by dry immersion (DI). Changes of plasma volume and orthostatic tolerance were evaluated. Calf skin blood flow (laser-Doppler flowmetry), ECG and blood pressure signal during a 10-min stand test were recorded, and skin vascular resistance, central hemodynamics, baroreflex sensitivity and heart rate variability were estimated. After DI we observed increased calf skin vascular resistance in the standing position (12.0 ± 1.0 AU-after- vs. 6.8 ± 1.4 AU-before), while supine it was unchanged. Cardiovascular deconditioning was confirmed by greater tachycardia on standing and by hypovolemia (-16 ± 3% at day 7 of DI). Total peripheral resistance and indices of cardiovascular autonomic control were not modified. In conclusion, unchanged autonomic control and total peripheral resistance suggest that increased skin vasoconstriction to standing involves rather local mechanisms-as venoarteriolar reflex-and might compensate insufficient vasoconstriction of other vascular beds., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A sedentary lifestyle has adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, including impaired endothelial functions. Subjecting healthy men to 7 days of dry immersion (DI) presented a unique opportunity to analyze the specific effects of enhanced inactivity on the endothelium. We investigated endothelial properties before, during, and after 7 days of DI involving eight subjects. Microcirculatory functions were assessed with laser Doppler in the skin of the calf. We studied basal blood flow and endothelium-dependent and -independent vasodilation. We also measured plasma levels of microparticles, a sign of cellular dysfunction, and soluble endothelial factors, reflecting the endothelial state. Basal flow and endothelium-dependent vasodilation were reduced by DI (22 + or - 4 vs. 15 + or - 2 arbitrary units and 29 + or - 6% vs. 12 + or - 6%, respectively, P < 0.05), and this was accompanied by an increase in circulating endothelial microparticles (EMPs), which was significant on day 3 (42 + or - 8 vs. 65 + or - 10 EMPs/microl, P < 0.05), whereas microparticles from other cell origins remained unchanged. Plasma soluble VEGF decreased significantly during DI, whereas VEGF receptor 1 and soluble CD62E were unchanged, indicating that the increase in EMPs was associated with a change in antiapoptotic tone rather than endothelial activation. Our study showed that extreme physical inactivity in humans induced by 7 days of DI causes microvascular impairment with a disturbance of endothelial functions, associated with a selective increase in EMPs. Microcirculatory endothelial dysfunction might contribute to cardiovascular deconditioning as well as to hypodynamia-associated pathologies. In conclusion, the endothelium should be the focus of special care in situations of acute limitation of physical activity.