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The invention of aviation has made it possible for people to travel faster and farther than ever before, and has led to a global increase in connection of commerce, people, and ideas. However, economic growth and social changes have also led to challenges for the aviation industry. NASA's Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) works hand-in-hand with scientists, engineers, industry leaders, and government to solve many of these problems. Seven standards-based lessons and activities help students explore the social and scientific advances in the speed and distance of human travel, as well as NASA's contribution to aviation. From comparing walking speeds to flying speeds and calculating how long it will take to reach certain destinations, to playing an air cargo game and creating map projections, the activities show students how air transportation has changed the world. Activities in this guide support the Next Generation Science Standards and Common Core State Standards in mathematics. This guide was developed as a supplement for the IMAX feature film "Living in the Age of Airplanes," which was released in 2015 by National Geographic.

The trends and variability in surface air temperatures over selected eco-climatic zones in Nigeria were assessed using Merra-2 datasets from 1981 to2018. A total of 15 stations spread across the eco-climatic zones in Nigeria were used for this study. The Mann-Kendall, linear trend and Sen’s slope trend test, time series plots and descriptive statistics were used. The coefficients of variability of surface air maximum temperature showed low variability for the Mangrove-swamp rainforest and moderate variability for the Guinea-wooded, Sudan and Sahel savannas. Similarly, the coefficients of variability of surface air minimum temperature showed moderate variability for all the selected eco-climatic zones. The M-K trend test showed that 14 stations had upward trends and 1 downward trend, with 13 stations having statistically significant trend in air surface maximum temperature. All the stations had statistically significant upward trends in air surface minimum temperature. The average increase in maximum and minimum air surface temperatures is estimated to be about 0.035°C and 0.036°C per year, respectively. For Nigeria, the average air surface temperature is estimated to increase by about 0.036°C per year, and the average air surface temperature is estimated to have increased by about 1.4°C over the 38 years. This study then gives a linear trend projection of about 4.3°C increase in estimated mean air surface temperature by year 2100 in Nigeria.Citation: King, L. E., Udo, S. O., Ewona, I. O., Amadi, S. O., Ebong, E. D., & Emeka, C. N. (2024). TREND AND VARIATIONS OF SURFACE AIR TEMPERATURES ACROSS SOME ECO-CLIMATIC ZONES IN NIGERIA. Trends in Renewable Energy, 10, 170-209. doi:10.17737/tre.2024.10.2.00172

With just a few materials, building a paper model of the International Space Station (ISS) can become an excellent group, troop, or class project. This publication contains a brief overview of the ISS, its parts, the science that occurs on board, instructions, and extensions for an interdisciplinary technology experience. Discover more about the Station. Explore fun facts, simulate building the Station, and learn about the international partners. NASA hopes to whet users' appetites for more space exploration through these materials. Teams of students can take on the roles of international partners and/or engineers as they learn about and assemble portions of the model. Once each team briefs the group about their section of the model during a mock summit, then it's time to ensure "Assembly Complete." Also included is a worksheet with Web links (and an answer key) to help students process what they learn. The end result is an international, team-building experience to construct a 3-D paper model of the Station. With a bit of nylon fishing line or string, the model can hang suspended and seemingly float below the ceiling. Various links to multimedia experiences are included to extend the experience and further bring the Station to life. Students can visit the links to play a spacewalking simulation game, find out how to view the Station from their backyard, and see pictures of the inside of the Station using a program called Photosynth. [This document was created for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration by NASA Headquarters and Johnson Space Center.]

Among the thousands of questions that need to be answered before astronauts travel to distant planets and asteroids are questions related to the astronauts themselves. How much food will they need and what foods can they take? We are fortunate on Earth to have an amazing variety of foods to eat. When astronauts do go to Mars and other destinations, mission crews will be international. Carrying food the entire crew likes will be a real challenge. In this two-part activity, student teams will learn how to determine calorie requirements of astronauts and plan a one-day menu for an American astronaut and one for an international astronaut. In an optional extension to this activity, teams can learn how the calorie content (energy contained) in different foods is determined. They will measure the energy in several foods using a calorimeter they construct from simple materials. Appended are: (1) International Space Station Standard Menu Nutritional Data; and (2) Cooking Conversion Table. (Contains 3 footnotes.)

The many activities contained in this teaching guide emphasize hands-on involvement, prediction, data collection and interpretation, teamwork, and problem solving. The guide also contains background information about aeronautical research that can help students learn how airplanes fly. Following the background sections are a series of activities that demonstrate the basic science of aeronautics while offering challenging tasks in design. Each activity employs basic and inexpensive materials. In each activity teachers will find construction diagrams, material and tools lists, and instructions. A brief background section within each activity elaborates on the concepts covered and points back to the introductory material in this guide. Also included is information about where the activity applies to science and mathematics standards, assessment ideas, and extensions. Because many of the activities and demonstrations apply to more than one subject area, a matrix chart identifies opportunities for extended learning experiences. The chart indicates these subject areas by activity title. In addition, many of the student activities encourage student problem-solving and cooperative learning. The length of time involved for each activity varies according to its degree of difficulty and the development level of the students. Finally, the guide concludes with a glossary of terms, suggested reading list, NASA educational resources including electronic resources, and an evaluation questionnaire. Appended are: (1) Glossary; (2) NASA Educator Resource Center Network; and (3) Evaluation Reply Card. (Contains 16 figures.) [This publication was developed for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (Dryden Flight Research Center) by "PAT" (Preservation of Aerospace Technology) Projects, Inc., with the assistance of teachers from the Antelope Valley in North Los Angeles County and Kern County of California.]

The Calculator Controlled Robots activities are designed to engage students in hands-on inquiry-based missions. These activities address National science and technology standards, as well as specifically focusing on mathematics content and process standards. There are ten missions and three exploration extensions that provide activities for up to one semester. These activities are geared towards using a graphing calculator with a Norland Research calculator robot. Best results for student engagement have been obtained with each student having her/his own CalcBot (calculator + robot) to use in class. The curriculum is suited for mathematics, science, technology, or after-school classes. Appended are: (1) Where to Find Specific Mathematics Content; (2) National Content Standards for Mathematics: Grades 6-8; (3) National Process Standards for Mathematics: Grades 6-8; (4) National Content Standards for Science: Grades 5-8; (5) National Educational Technology Standards for Students; and (6) Standards for English Language Arts.

This educator guide is organized into seven chapters: (1) Overview; (2) The Design Challenge; (3) Connections to National Curriculum Standards; (4) Preparing to Teach; (5) Classroom Sessions; (6) Opportunities for Extension; and (7) Teacher Resources. Chapter 1 provides information about Environmental Control and Life Support Systems used on NASA spacecraft. Chapter 2 provides a brief description of the challenge, time requirements, and materials and cost estimates. A more detailed list of materials appears in chapter 4. Chapter 3 provides correlations to the National Science Education Standards, the Standards for School Mathematics, and the Standards for Technological Literacy. Chapter 4 contains all of the basic information you need to know, and lists everything you need to do, before using the challenge in your classroom. Chapter 5 provides information that will guide you through each session. Chapter 6 describes optional activities that are related to the basic challenge. These extensions are described but not actually developed for you. Chapter 7 contains a list of useful websites, information regarding NASA's Educator Resource Center Network, and black line masters for classroom use. This educator guide has been set up to help you find things quickly and to minimize your need to "jump around." A glossary is included. (Contains 6 tables.)

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center, Dryden Flight Research Center, and their partners at other NASA centers and in private industry are currently developing X-33, a prototype to test technologies for the next generation of space transportation. This single-stage-to-orbit reusable launch vehicle (SSTO RLV) may replace the Space Shuttle Orbiter and greatly reduce the cost of putting people, satellites, and scientific experiments into space. This guide is divided into several sections: (1) National Science Education Standards; (2) Math Connections; (3) Thinking Skills; (4) Background material; (5) Preparation for the challenge; (6) Day-by-day procedures; (7) Detailed materials list; (8) Extensions; (9) Resources; and (10) Masters. (Contains a list of 5 resources and 19 online resources.) [This Design Challenge was designed by TERC, Cambridge, MA and was sponsored by NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.]

This guide provides teachers and students many opportunities. Chapters within the guide present the history of rocketry, National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) 21st Century Space Exploration Policy, rocketry principles, and practical rocketry. These topics lay the foundation for what follows--a wealth of dynamic rocket science classroom activities that work. The activities focus on Sir Isaac Newton's laws of motion and how they apply to rockets. They incorporate cooperative learning, problem solving, critical thinking, and hands-on involvement. They support national and state standards for science, mathematics, and technology across many grade levels. All of the activities are designed with the classroom in mind. They include clear descriptions, background information for the teacher and student, detailed procedures and tips, lists of readily available materials, assessments, questions for discussion, and extensions. The activities are designed to foster excitement and a passion for learning. It has been created as a two to six week classroom unit depending upon the grade level of the students but individual activities can be extracted and used as stand-alone classroom experiences. Teachers will find activity objectives and principles clearly stated along with the vocabulary terms necessary for understanding the principles involved. [The original "Rockets Teacher Guide" was published by NASA's Education Division in the mid-1990s.]

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is one of the biggest employers of engineers in the world--about 90,000 among its own employees and its corporate partners. So it's not surprising that NASA wants kids to learn more about engineering, become interested in the things engineers do, and experience the world of engineering firsthand. Meanwhile, "Design Squad" is all about engaging kids in engineering by offering them opportunities to give it a try. By teaming up to develop the "On the Moon" guide, NASA and "Design Squad" help teachers bring hands-on engineering and the adventure of space exploration to life for kids. This guide offers six hands-on challenges that bring engineering and NASA's moon missions to life for kids in schools and afterschool programs. The challenges take an hour (except "Feel the Heat," which takes 1 1/2 to 2 hours), use readily available materials, give kids many ways to succeed, and can be done with large groups. The activities also meet many of the national science, technology, and mathematics standards. Activities in this guide include: (1) Launch It; (2) Touchdown; (3) Roving on the Moon; (4) Heavy Lifting; (5) On Target; and (6) Feel the Heat. ["On the Moon" was produced by the WGBH Educational Outreach department, in collaboration with NASA.]

This guide was prepared as a tool useful for informal education venues (4-H, Boys and Girls Clubs, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, etc.), science clubs and related programs, and can be adopted for formal education settings. An exciting and productive study in rocket science can be implemented using the selected activities for the above-mentioned settings. The guide's activities can be correlated to meet formal education's core curriculum objectives or used for ancillary enrichment and extension activities. The series of activities in this guide require basic, inexpensive materials. They demonstrate fundamental principles of rocket science. The activities were selected and organized around the target concepts of altitude, velocity and acceleration (i.e., height, distance and speed). The Adventures in Rocket Science Activity Matrix on page v organizes the activities by suggested grade level bands as well as target concepts. The guide includes a compilation of NASA-developed and originally developed activities that emphasize hands-on involvement, prediction, data collection and interpretation, teamwork, and problem solving. Project background and an edited, student-friendly version of "The History of Rocketry" is included. The guide includes an appendix with construction directions for various project activities, safety guidelines and a glossary of terms. Appended are: (1) Assembly Instructions; (2) Rocket Safety Code; (3) Rocket Principles; and (4) Rocketry Resource Materials. [This document was produced and funded through the NASA Explorer Institute (NEI) and is an expansion of the NASA guidebook "Rockets" by Deborah Shearer, Greg Vogt, and Carla Rosenberg.]

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center along with their partners at other NASA centers, and in private industry, are designing and beginning to develop the next generation of spacecraft to transport cargo, equipment, and human explorers to space. These vehicles are part of the Constellation Program, which is carrying out a bold vision of human space exploration. The program includes a crew exploration vehicle and the spacecraft to carry the crew to the Moon and later to Mars. The NASA Authorization Act of 2005 directs NASA to establish a program to develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, which will serve as a stepping stone to further exploration of Mars and other destinations. This design challenge focuses on the Ares family of rockets, which will replace the Space Shuttle in the task of putting people, satellites, and scientific experiments into space. The Engineering Design Challenges connect students with the work of NASA engineers by engaging them in similar design challenges of their own. With some simple and inexpensive materials, teachers can lead an exciting unit that focuses on a specific problem that NASA engineers must solve and the process they use to solve it. In the classroom, students design, build, test, and revise their own solutions to problems that share fundamental science and engineering issues with the challenges facing NASA engineers. (Contains 28 figures.)

Lunar Nautics is a hands-on curriculum targeted to youth in grades 6 to 8, that allows the students to design, test, analyze and manage a space mission from initial concept to project funding. Lunar Nautics provides opportunities for development of problem solving skills and critical thinking skills that are needed to design, organize and manage a space mission through its life cycle. The curriculum is designed as a template curriculum that can be applied to any space mission: past, present or future. Each section of this guide contains background information, demonstrations and activities that support the section topic and the overall design and engineering goals of Lunar Nautics. This guide is divided into sections that touch upon space mission awareness, concept understanding, teamwork, design and proposal development. Educators can use this guide with great flexibility in a variety of formats such as week long day camps, after-school programs, a classroom unit or simply as supporting curriculum. An appendix providing useful information for the Lunar Nautics program is included. (Contains 3 figures.) [This paper was produced by the Discovery Place, Inc.]

In May 2005, the International Technology Education Association (ITEA) was funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to develop curricular units for Grades K-12 on Space Exploration. The units focus on aspects of the themes that NASA Engineers and Scientists--as well as future generations of explorers--must consider, such as Energy and Power, Transportation and Lunar Plant Growth Chambers (the STS-118 Design Challenges). Moreover, the units are embedded within a larger model program for technology education known as Engineering byDesign[TM]. Design is a creative problem-solving process. In this unit, students will design and build a lunar plant growth chamber using the engineering design process. This Design Challenge has been written with two tracks in mind. Track 1 provides a more comprehensive learning experience, and teachers are encouraged to consider exploring this alternative, perhaps working with other teachers in the school to provide students with resources and a laboratory-classroom with the necessary equipment. The Design, Build and Evaluate Challenge is a twelve-to-eighteen day challenge for those teachers and students who have the resources available to build a larger model with operational subsystems. Teachers need to determine what tools and materials are available to students and whether students will build a full-sized or scaled-down version of the LPGC. This extension continues after the Preliminary Design Review (PDR) in Lesson 3 with the students constructing their working prototype and presenting it at the Critical Design Review (CDR) in Lesson 4. The Design and Evaluate Challenge is a five-to-seven day challenge. It requires students to design and build a small model of a Lunar Plant Growth Chamber (LPGC). This challenge ends with Lesson 3, culminating with the Preliminary Design Review (PDR). Resource documents are appended.

The Field Trip to the Moon program uses an inquiry-based learning approach that fosters team building and introduces students to careers in science and engineering. The program components include a DVD and classroom investigations. The compelling DVD (not included here) provides essential information about Earth and the Moon. The hands-on activities, which take up where the show leaves off, motivate students to use their cooperative learning skills to design a self-sufficient lunar station. Working in teams, students develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving techniques, and an understanding of complex systems as they discuss solutions to the essential questions they are presented. This educator's guide includes classroom investigation procedures, questions to guide student investigations, material list, and worksheets. [Portions of this document were produced by the American Museum of Natural History.]

The Field Trip to the Moon program uses an inquiry-based learning approach that fosters team building and introduces young people to careers in science and engineering. The program components include the Field Trip to the Moon show (either on DVD or presented in a planetarium dome) and workshop investigations. The compelling show provides essential information about Earth and the Moon. The hands-on activities, which take up where the show leaves off, motivate young people to use their cooperative learning skills to design a self-sufficient lunar station. Working in teams, they develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving techniques, and an understanding of complex systems as they discuss solutions to the essential questions they are presented. The complete program is made up of: a free DVD of Field Trip to the Moon for your classroom, accompanied by a Companion Guide, Formal Educator's Guide, and Informal Educator's Guide (the portion presented here), each with standards-based, hands-on classroom activities. [Portions of this document were produced by the American Museum of Natural History.]

This student employee handbook offers tips on planning, design process, and presentation of a student Lunar Nautics project. Each section includes mission, task, challenge, and guide questions. With the activities presented, students will learn to design a Lunar Lander, Lunar Miner, and Lunar Base; investigate the geography and geology of the moon and lunar missions; and build various lunar spacecrafts. [This guide was created by Lunar Nautics Space Systems, Inc. in conjunction with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate; the George C. Marshall Space Flight Center Academic Affairs Office; and Discovery Place, Inc. For the companion Lunar Nautics educator's guide, see ED511740.]

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Engineers at Marshall Space Flight Center, and their partners at other NASA centers and in private industry, are designing and beginning to develop the next generation of spacecraft to transport cargo, equipment, and human explorers to space. These vehicles--the Ares I and Ares V launch vehicles--are part of the Constellation Program, which is carrying out a bold vision of human space exploration. The program also includes a crew exploration vehicle. The NASA Authorization Act of 2005 directs NASA to establish a program to develop a sustained human presence on the Moon, which will serve as a stepping stone to further exploration of Mars and other destinations. This design challenge focuses on the Ares family of launch vehicles, which will replace the Space Shuttle orbiter in the task of putting people, satellites, and scientific experiments into space. (Contains 23 figures and lists 17 resources.)

Field Trip to the Moon uses an inquiry-based learning approach that fosters team building and introduces participants to careers in science and engineering. The program components include the Field Trip to the Moon DVD [not included here], Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO)/Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) Activities, and Lunar Base Activities. Together these materials can be used to create your own workshop that introduces important concepts about the Earth and the Moon, and motivates participants to use their cooperative learning skills. Working as a full group or in teams, the participants can develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving techniques, and an understanding of complex systems as they discuss solutions to the essential questions in this program. [Portions of this document were produced by the American Museum of Natural History.]

With support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Goddard Space Flight Center, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has developed educational materials that incorporate information and data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint satellite mission between the United States and Japan. "Investigating the Climate System" is a series of five learning modules for grades 5-12 created by educational specialists along with TRMM scientists, and finalized by IGES for national distribution. Each module focuses on a different component of the Earth system--clouds, energy, precipitation, weather and winds. This module focuses on the weather. Appended are: (1) Bibliography/Resources; (2) Assessment Rubric & Answer Keys; (3) National Education Standards; (4) Problem-Based Learning; (5) TRMM Background/Instruments; and (6) Glossary. [This document was funded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM).]

With support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Goddard Space Flight Center, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has developed educational materials that incorporate information and data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint satellite mission between the United States and Japan. "Investigating the Climate System" is a series of five learning modules for grades 5-12 created by educational specialists along with TRMM scientists, and finalized by IGES for national distribution. Each module focuses on a different component of the Earth system--clouds, energy, precipitation, weather and winds. This module focuses on winds. Appended are: (1) Bibliography; (2) Assessment Rubric & Answer Keys; (3) National Education Standards; (4) Problem-Based Learning; (5) TRMM Introduction/Instruments; and (6) Glossary. [This document was funded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM).]

With support from NASA's (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) Goddard Space Flight Center, IGES (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies) has developed educational materials that incorporate information and data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint satellite mission between the United States and Japan. Investigating the Climate System is a series of five learning modules for grades 5-12 created by educational specialists along with TRMM scientists, and finalized by IGES for national distribution. Each module focuses on a different component of the Earth system--clouds, energy, precipitation, weather and winds. This module focuses on energy. Appended are: (1) Bibliography/Resources; (2) Answer Keys; (3) National Education Standards; (4) Problem-Based Learning; (5) TRMM Introduction/Instruments; (6) Temperature Tables; and (7) Glossary. (Contains 2 figures.)

With support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Goddard Space Flight Center, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has developed educational materials that incorporate information and data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint satellite mission between the United States and Japan. "Investigating the Climate System" is a series of five learning modules for grades 5-12 created by educational specialists along with TRMM scientists, and finalized by IGES for national distribution. Each module focuses on a different component of the Earth system--clouds, energy, precipitation, weather and winds. This module focuses on clouds. Appended are: (1) Resources; (2) Assessment Rubrics & Answer Keys; (3) National Education Standards; (4) Problem-Based Learning; (5) TRMM Introduction/Instruments; (6) Online Resources; and (7) Glossary. [This document was funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM).]

With support from National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA's) Goddard Space Flight Center, Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES) has developed educational materials that incorporate information and data from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM), a joint satellite mission between the United States and Japan. "Investigating the Climate System" is a series of five learning modules for grades 5-12 created by educational specialists along with TRMM scientists, and finalized by IGES for national distribution. Each module focuses on a different component of the Earth system--clouds, energy, precipitation, weather and winds. This module focuses on precipitation. Appended are: (1) Bibliography/Resources; (2) Assessment Rubrics & Answer Keys; (3) National Education Standards; (4) Problem-Based Learning; (5) TRMM Introduction/Instruments; (6) Florida Weather Page; (7) Cloud Diagram; and (8) Glossary. [This document was funded by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM).]

This educator guide provides background information on Wilbur and Orville Wright. It also presents activities on aeronautics that provide templates for building the 1900, 1901, and 1902 Gliders and the 1903 Flyer. Activities include: (1) Early Aviation; (2) Your First Interview; (3) Your First Report; (4) Build a Model of the 1900 Glider; (5) Questions on the 1900 Glider; (6) What Would You Design?; (7) Build a Model of the 1901 Glider; (8) Forces on the 1901 Glider; (9) Questions on the 1901 Glider; (10) Wrong Ideas; (11) The Wrights' Wind Tunnel; (12) Operate the Wrights' Tunnel; (13) Build a Model of the 1902 Glider; (14) Compare the 1900, 1901, and 1902 Gliders; (15) Prices Then and Now; (16) Build a Model of the 1903 Flyer; (17) Balancing Forces; (18) Center of Gravity; (19) How Far Did They Fly?; (20) How To Launch the Flyer; (21) Write a Press Release; (22) Design a Mission Patch; and (23) Be an Inventor. A glossary of terms is included. [This guide was produced by the NASA Glenn Research Center Office of Educational Programs in Cleveland, OH, and the NASA Aerospace Educational Coordinating Committee.]

The construction of the International Space Station (ISS) is one of humankind's most exciting and challenging endeavors. Numerous rocket launches are required to build this orbiting science laboratory. The purpose of this curriculum supplement is to introduce students in the Early Childhood classroom to the International Space Station and the role rockets play in its construction. The guide uses these topics as the basis for interdisciplinary activities for the early learner. The product begins with background information for educators. Activities that follow the background information are designed to allow students to develop science, mathematics, technology, and English language arts skills. The activities in this guide are for use individually or as part of a more concentrated space or transportation unit. Educators may choose the sequence of lessons to best fit the requirements of their classrooms. Following the activities, the guide includes a glossary of terms and acronyms. (Contains 19 figures.) [The Education Office at NASA Johnson Space Center and the Education Office at Space Center Houston provided support for this document.]

Science education is an integral part of scientific endeavors. When the National Aeronautics and Space Administration was created by an act of Congress in 1958, its charter required the agency to "...provide for the widest practicable and appropriate dissemination of information concerning its activities and the results thereof." Part of that responsibility includes introducing students to the scientific results of planetary exploration. This volume is designed to help meet this goal. The activities are written either to supplement or to introduce topics usually encountered in earth science courses. The exercises are grouped into five units: (1) introduction to geologic processes; (2) impact cratering activities; (3) planetary atmospheres, (4) planetary surfaces, and (5) geologic mapping. Although each exercise is intended to "stand alone," students will benefit from having worked some of the prior exercises. For example, it would be difficult for students to work exercises in planetary geologic mapping without some knowledge of geologic processes and planetary surfaces. The suggested introductory exercises are noted at the beginning of each exercise. Depending on the instructor, activities can be adapted to most levels of instruction by modifying the questions and adjusting the expectations for answers. A list of suggested correlations of activities with topics commonly covered in earth science courses is included for the convenience of the instructor. (Contains 91 figures.)

We report on the update of SO2 and first detections of SO3, CS, and CS2, and detection of OCS above the cloud deck using the SOIR instrument on-board Venus Express, and upper limit profiles of H2S and HOCl. Based on the solar occultation spectra measured by SOIR covering all latitudes over the 2006–2014 period, we find an average SO2 volume mixing ratio of ∼0.02 ppm below 90 km which increases to 5 ppm at 100 km; average OCS abundance of 1 ppb to 1 ppm between 65 and 100 km increasing with altitude; mean SO3 values of 0.1 ppm at 75 km, 1 ppm at 85 km, and 10 ppm at 95 km; CS volume mixing ratios varying from 0.1 ppm at 65 km to 40 ppm at 100 km; finally we report 0.03 ppm of CS2 at 70 km and 5 ppm at 90 km. It is important to note the detections for all of these species may be biased to higher volume mixing ratios at higher altitudes based on the detection limits for SOIR. Upper-limits for H2S and HOCl are determined. All abundances show large variabilities with time and/or latitude equal to at least one order of magnitude at all altitudes. We also study the detection statistics of all detected species as a function of time, latitude, and side of the terminator.