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Background: Cytokines have a major impact on the neurotransmitter networks that are involved in schizophrenia pathophysiology. First Episode Psychosis (FEP) patients exhibit abnormalities in cytokines levels prior to the start of treatment. Previous studies showed that antipsychotic treatment modulates cytokines levels. The aim of this meta-analysis is to further investigate this relationship. Methods: Several online databases were searched. For meta-analysis of selected studies, we analysed variables containing the number of cases, mean and standard deviation of IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, TNF-α, IFN-γ levels before, and after, antipsychotic treatment. Results: 12 studies were included in the meta-analysis. Our main results demonstrate that, in FEP patients, antipsychotic treatment is related to decreased concentrations of pro-inflammatory IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α and anti-inflammatory IL-4, IL-10 cytokines. On the other hand, levels of pro-inflammatory IL-2 and IL-17 remain unaffected. Conclusions: When compared with other meta-analyses of studies involving FEP individuals, results we obtained are consistent regarding decrease in IL-1β, IL-6. Comparing outcomes of our study with meta-analyses of schizophrenic subjects, in general, our results are consistent in IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2. Our meta-analysis is the only one which indicates a decrease in anti-inflammatory IL-10 in FEP patients after antipsychotic treatment.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the most prevalent mental illness and a leading cause of disability worldwide. Despite a range of effective treatments, more than 30% of patients do not achieve remission as a result of conventional therapy. In these circumstances the identification of novel drug targets and pathogenic factors becomes essential for selecting more efficacious and personalized treatment. Increasing evidence has implicated the role of inflammation in the pathophysiology of depression, revealing potential new pathways and treatment options. Moreover, convergent evidence indicates that MDD is related to disturbed neurogenesis and suggests a possible role of neurotrophic factors in recovery of function in patients. Although the influence of antidepressants on inflammatory cytokines balance was widely reported in various studies, the exact correlation between drugs used and specific cytokines and neurotrophins serum levels often remains inconsistent. Available data suggest anti-inflammatory properties of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), selective serotonin and noradrenaline inhibitors (SNRIs), and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) as a possible additional mechanism of reduction of depressive symptoms. In this review, we outline emerging data regarding the influence of different antidepressant drugs on a wide array of peripheral biomarkers such as interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, C-reactive protein (CRP), or interferon (IFN)-γ. Presented results indicate anti-inflammatory effect for selected drugs or lack of such effect. Research in this field is insufficient to define the role of inflammatory markers as a predictor of treatment response in MDD.

This article explores the nature of integrity violations in Dutch casinos. In such organizations, risk may be minimized, but it cannot be eliminated. Casinos, therefore, have a clear interest in constantly seeking to improve their safety standards and cultures. This article empirically analyzes the nature of documented integrity violations in Dutch casinos during the period 2001 to 2006. Of the 78 employee contracts that were terminated because of integrity violations, the files of 13 employees of the table games division were researched in depth. Our analysis of the sample led to a set of propositions regarding the nature of integrity violations in Dutch casinos.