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Background Snakebite though neglected, affects 5 million people yearly. More neglected is the psychological effect of envenomation. We determined prevalence and pattern of depression among patients admitted into snakebite wards of Kaltungo General Hospital Nigeria, and percentage recognized by clinicians. We also assessed for factors associated with depression. Methods In a descriptive hospital based study, we used Patient Health questionnaire (PHQ-9) to make diagnosis of depression among the patients. We reviewed patients’ clinical records to determine clinicians’ recognition of depression. Results Of 187 interviews analyzed, 47 (25%) had depression with none recognized by attending clinicians. Patients with snakebite complications (odd ratio [OR] 3.1, 95% CI 1.1–8.5), and previous history of snakebites (OR 2.7, 95% CI 1.1–6.1) were associated with mild depression. Worrying about family welfare (OR 31.5, 95% CI 6.5–152.9), financial loss (OR 14.6, 95% CI 1.8–121.5) and time loss (OR 14.6, 95% CI 1.8–121.5), past history of snakebites (OR 8.3, 95% CI 1.9–36.5) and lower income (Mean difference −25,069 [84 USD], 95% CI 35,509 [118 USD]–14,630 [49 USD]) were associated with severe depression. Conclusion A quarter of in-patients of snakebite wards of the general hospital had comorbid depression that went unrecognized. Independent predictors of depression such as past history of snakebite, worrying about relations and having snakebite complications could help clinicians anticipate depression among patients. We recommend training of clinicians in the hospital on recognition of common psychological disorders like depression.

Background. In March 2010, Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders detected an outbreak of acute lead poisoning in Zamfara State, northwestern Nigeria, linked to low-technology gold ore processing. The outbreak killed more than 400 children ≤5 years of age in the first half of 2010 and has left more than 2,000 children with permanent disabilities. Objectives. The aims of this study were to estimate the statewide prevalence of children ≤5 years old with elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) in gold ore processing and non-ore-processing communities, and to identify factors associated with elevated blood lead levels in children. Methods. A representative, population-based study of ore processing and non-ore-processing villages was conducted throughout Zamfara in 2012. Blood samples from children, outdoor soil samples, indoor dust samples, and survey data on ore processing activities and other lead sources were collected from 383 children ≤5 years old in 383 family compounds across 56 villages. Results. 17.2% of compounds reported that at least one member had processed ore in the preceding 12 months (95% confidence intervals (CI): 9.7, 24.7). The prevalence of BLLs ≥10 μg/dL in children ≤5 years old was 38.2% (95% CI: 26.5, 51.4) in compounds with members who processed ore and 22.3% (95% CI: 17.8, 27.7) in compounds where no one processed ore. Ore processing activities were associated with higher lead concentrations in soil, dust, and blood samples. Other factors associated with elevated BLL were a child's age and sex, breastfeeding, drinking water from a piped tap, and exposure to eye cosmetics. Conclusions. Childhood lead poisoning is widespread in Zamfara State in both ore processing and non-ore-processing settings, although it is more prevalent in ore processing areas. Although most children's BLLs were below the recommended level for chelation therapy, environmental remediation and use of safer ore processing practices are needed to prevent further exposures. Patient consent. Obtained Ethics approval. The study protocol was approved by the US Centers for Disease Control Institutional Review Board-A and the National Health Research Ethics Committee of Nigeria. Competing Interests. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Introduction : HIV/AIDS in seafaring is a global health issue with adverse effects on the seafarers and the economy at large. Rivers State has the highest number of seaports and reports as the state with the highest HIV prevalence rate of 15.2% in Nigeria. This study aimed to identify determinants of HIV risk behaviors among seafarers in Port Harcourt Seaport, Rivers State. Methods : a cross sectional study was carried out from March to May 2016 among seafarers in Port Harcourt Seaport. Data on socio-demographic characteristics, seafaring related characteristics, HIV knowledge, attitude, and risk behaviors were collected using a validated, pre-tested and self-administered questionnaire. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed using Epi Info version 7. Results : the mean age ± standard deviation of the seafarers was 38.8±8.51 years. Majority of the seafarers were males (92.2%, n = 95). The prevalence of multiple sex partnership was 29.1% (n = 30); transactional sex was 6.8% (n = 7); homosexuality was 1.0% (n = 1) and illicit intra-venous drug use was 2.9% (n = 3). Thirty-five of the seafarers (34.0%) engaged in one or more HIV risk behaviors. Multivariate analysis revealed that seafarers who spent six or more months on voyage were three times more likely to engage in HIV risk behaviors than those who spent less than six months [Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.08; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 1.26 - 7.51; p Conclusion : long duration of voyage and lack of comprehensive knowledge on HIV are determinants of HIV risk behaviors among seafarers in this study. Regular HIV sensitization visits to seafarers are advocated to promote HIV knowledge and discourage HIV risk behaviors among this highly mobile population.

In 2010, a series of lead poisoning outbreaks linked to artisanal gold processing killed at least 400 young children in Zamfara State in northwestern Nigeria. There were several efforts to respond to the outbreaks as they occurred. Subsequent recurrence of lead poisoning outbreaks within Zamfara and beyond suggested that there were no efforts to mitigate the outbreaks as recommended for disaster management. This case study, to be completed within 3 hours, is suitable for senior level public health officials and those training for such positions. It enables participants to review and apply epidemiological principles for managing disasters and suggest steps toward development of policy recommendations based on the context of environmental lead exposure. It will serve as a generic training module for managers/responders of other natural (floods, heat stroke) and man-made disasters (civil strife, conflict, insurgency) based on the general/standard principle of the complete disaster management cycle.

On July 20, 2014, an acutely ill traveler from Liberia arrived at the international airport in Lagos, Nigeria, and was confirmed to have Ebola virus disease (Ebola) after being admitted to a private hospital. This index patient potentially exposed 72 persons at the airport and the hospital. The Federal Ministry of Health, with guidance from the Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), declared an Ebola emergency. Lagos, (pop. 21 million) is a regional hub for economic, industrial, and travel activities and a setting where communicable diseases can be easily spread and transmission sustained. Therefore, implementing a rapid response using all available public health assets was the highest priority. On July 23, the Federal Ministry of Health, with the Lagos State government and international partners, activated an Ebola Incident Management Center as a precursor to the current Emergency Operations Center (EOC) to rapidly respond to this outbreak. The index patient died on July 25; as of September 24, there were 19 laboratory-confirmed Ebola cases and one probable case in two states, with 894 contacts identified and followed during the response. Eleven patients with laboratory-confirmed Ebola had been discharged, an additional patient was diagnosed at convalescent stage, and eight patients had died (seven with confirmed Ebola; one probable). The isolation wards were empty, and 891 (all but three) contacts had exited follow-up, with the remainder due to exit on October 2. No new cases had occurred since August 31, suggesting that the Ebola outbreak in Nigeria might be contained. The EOC, established quickly and using an Incident Management System (IMS) to coordinate the response and consolidate decision making, is largely credited with helping contain the Nigeria outbreak early. National public health emergency preparedness agencies in the region, including those involved in Ebola responses, should consider including the development of an EOC to improve the ability to rapidly respond to urgent public health threats.

The recent wave of the Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Western Africa and efforts to control the disease where the health system requires strengthening raises a number of ethical challenges for healthcare workers practicing in these countries. We discuss the implications of weak health systems for controlling EVD and limitations of the ethical obligation to provide care for patients with EVD using Nigeria as a case study. We highlight the right of healthcare workers to protection that should be obligatorily provided by the government. Where the national government cannot meet this obligation, healthcare workers only have a moral and not a professional obligation to provide care to patients with EVD. The national government also has an obligation to adequately compensate healthcare workers that become infected in the course of duty. Institutionalisation of policies that protect healthcare workers are required for effective control of the spread of highly contagious diseases like EVD in a timely manner.

The health workforce is one of the key building blocks for strengthening health systems. There is an alarming shortage of curative and preventive health care workers in developing countries many of which are in Africa. Africa resultantly records appalling health indices as a consequence of endemic and emerging health issues that are exacerbated by a lack of a public health workforce. In low-income countries, efforts to build public health surveillance and response systems have stalled, due in part, to the lack of epidemiologists and well-trained laboratorians. To strengthen public health systems in Africa, especially for disease surveillance and response, a number of countries have adopted a competency-based approach of training - Field Epidemiology and Laboratory Training Program (FELTP). The Nigeria FELTP was established in October 2008 as an inservice training program in field epidemiology, veterinary epidemiology and public health laboratory epidemiology and management. The first cohort of NFELTP residents began their training on 20th October 2008 and completed their training in December 2010. The program was scaled up in 2011 and it admitted 39 residents in its third cohort. The program has admitted residents in six annual cohorts since its inception admitting a total of 207 residents as of 2014 covering all the States. In addition the program has trained 595 health care workers in short courses. Since its inception, the program has responded to 133 suspected outbreaks ranging from environmental related outbreaks, vaccine preventable diseases, water and food borne, zoonoses, (including suspected viral hemorrhagic fevers) as well as neglected tropical diseases. With its emphasis on one health approach of solving public health issues the program has recruited physicians, veterinarians and laboratorians to work jointly on human, animal and environmental health issues. Residents have worked to identify risk factors of disease at the human animal interface for influenza, brucellosis, tick-borne relapsing fever, rabies, leptospirosis and zoonotic helminthic infections. The program has been involved in polio eradication efforts through its National Stop Transmission of Polio (NSTOP). The commencement of NFELTP was a novel approach to building sustainable epidemiological capacity to strengthen public health systems especially surveillance and response systems in Nigeria. Training and capacity building efforts should be tied to specific system strengthening and not viewed as an end to them. The approach of linking training and service provision may be an innovative approach towards addressing the numerous health challenges.

BACKGROUND: In 2010, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) investigated reports of high mortality in young children in Zamfara State, Nigeria, leading to confirmation of villages with widespread acute severe lead poisoning. In a retrospective analysis, we aimed to determine venous blood lead level (VBLL) thresholds and risk factors for encephalopathy using MSF programmatic data from the first year of the outbreak response. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We included children aged ≤5 years with VBLL ≥45 µg/dL before any chelation and recorded neurological status. Odds ratios (OR) for neurological features were estimated; the final model was adjusted for age and baseline VBLL, using random effects for village of residence. 972 children met inclusion criteria: 885 (91%) had no neurological features; 34 (4%) had severe features; 47 (5%) had reported recent seizures; and six (1%) had other neurological abnormalities. The geometric mean VBLLs for all groups with neurological features were >100 µg/dL vs 65.9 µg/dL for those without neurological features. The adjusted OR for neurological features increased with increasing VBLL: from 2.75, 95%CI 1.27-5.98 (80-99.9 µg/dL) to 22.95, 95%CI 10.54-49.96 (≥120 µg/dL). Neurological features were associated with younger age (OR 4.77 [95% CI 2.50-9.11] for 1

Jane Greig and colleagues from the medical humanitarian organization Médecins Sans Frontières describe the use of the oral chelating agent dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) in several thousand young children with severe lead poisoning as a result of an environmental disaster in Zamfara, northern Nigeria. Please see later in the article for the Editors' Summary, Background In 2010, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) discovered extensive lead poisoning impacting several thousand children in rural northern Nigeria. An estimated 400 fatalities had occurred over 3 mo. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) confirmed widespread contamination from lead-rich ore being processed for gold, and environmental management was begun. MSF commenced a medical management programme that included treatment with the oral chelating agent 2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA, succimer). Here we describe and evaluate the changes in venous blood lead level (VBLL) associated with DMSA treatment in the largest cohort of children ≤5 y of age with severe paediatric lead intoxication reported to date to our knowledge. Methods and Findings In a retrospective analysis of programme data, we describe change in VBLL after DMSA treatment courses in a cohort of 1,156 children ≤5 y of age who underwent between one and 15 courses of chelation treatment. Courses of DMSA of 19 or 28 d duration administered to children with VBLL ≥ 45 µg/dl were included. Impact of DMSA was calculated as end-course VBLL as a percentage of pre-course VBLL (ECP). Mixed model regression with nested random effects was used to evaluate the relative associations of covariates with ECP. Of 3,180 treatment courses administered, 36% and 6% of courses commenced with VBLL ≥ 80 µg/dl and ≥ 120 µg/dl, respectively. Overall mean ECP was 74.5% (95% CI 69.7%–79.7%); among 159 inpatient courses, ECP was 47.7% (95% CI 39.7%–57.3%). ECP after 19-d courses (n = 2,262) was lower in older children, first-ever courses, courses with a longer interval since a previous course, courses with more directly observed doses, and courses with higher pre-course VBLLs. Low haemoglobin was associated with higher ECP. Twenty children aged ≤5 y who commenced chelation died during the period studied, with lead poisoning a primary factor in six deaths. Monitoring of alanine transaminase (ALT), creatinine, and full blood count revealed moderate ALT elevation in, Editors' Summary Background Lead, a toxic metal that occurs naturally in the earth's crust, is now present throughout the environment because of human activities. For many years, lead was added to paint and gasoline and used in solder for water pipes. In addition, the mining, smelting, and refining of some metallic ores releases lead into the environment. Inhalation of contaminated air, consumption of contaminated food and water, and contact with dust that contains lead raises venous blood lead levels (VBLLs) and causes many health problems, particularly in children. Children who ingest large amounts of lead can develop anemia, muscle weakness, kidney damage, and life-threatening encephalopathy (brain swelling). Although fatal lead poisoning is now rare in resource-rich countries, it nevertheless remains a major global health problem. Over a three-month period in early 2010, for example, about 400 young children died in Zamfara State, Nigeria, from unexplained, intractable fits. By May 2010, it was clear that recently expanded gold mining had caused widespread environmental lead contamination in the region, and an environmental management program was begun to reduce lead levels in the surface soils. Why Was This Study Done? In response to the lead poisoning outbreak, the not-for-profit organization Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) began a medical management program to reduce VBLLs that included treatment with the oral chelation agent dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA). Chelation agents bind metal ions and facilitate their removal from the body, thereby reducing the likelihood of lead moving from the blood to the brain. Lead encephalopathy has been commonly treated by injecting another chelator called CaNa2EDTA, but the discovery of more than 1,000 cases of childhood lead poisoning in rural villages in Nigeria meant that MSF needed a chelation approach that could be applied rapidly in a remote resource-limited setting. Additionally, although CaNa2EDTA has been in common use for severe lead poisoning for longer than DMSA, and is commonly recommended in guidelines, the evidence base does not support one treatment as superior. Here, in a retrospective analysis of MSF program data, the researchers evaluate the changes in VBLLs before and after courses of oral DMSA treatment in children aged five years and below living in Zamfara to gain new insights into this understudied treatment for severe childhood lead poisoning. What Did the Researchers Do and Find? The researchers measured VBLLs before and after treatment with DMSA in 1,156 children (inpatient and outpatient) with high amounts of lead in their blood who underwent one or more courses of chelation treatment lasting 19 or 28 days by calculating each child's end-course VBLL as a percentage of the child's pre-course VBLL (ECP). Considering all the treatment courses given between June 2010 and June 2011, the mean (average) ECP was 74.5%. That is, on average, VBLLs measured at the end of treatment courses were reduced by a quarter compared to VBLLs at the start of treatment courses. Among 159 inpatient courses of DMSA, the ECP was 47.7% (a halving of pre-course VBLLs). The ECP after 19-day courses was lower in older children, after first-ever courses, after courses with a longer interval since a previous course, after courses that included more directly observed doses (DMSA given in the presence of a health-care worker), and in children with higher pre-course VBLLs. Nine of the children included in this analysis died during the study period; lead poisoning was probably involved in three of these deaths. Importantly, no clinically severe adverse effects related to DMSA were seen during the study period, and no laboratory findings were recorded that required treatment discontinuation. What Do These Findings Mean? Because many changes were made to the treatment given to the affected children in Zamfara during the study period and because no information is presented here on clinical outcomes, these findings cannot be used to reach any definitive conclusions about the effectiveness or safety of oral DMSA as a treatment for lead poisoning in young children. However, these findings show that chelation was associated with a large reduction in the death rate among probable or suspected cases of childhood lead poisoning in Zamfara and provide new information about oral chelation that may help agencies such as MSF provide urgent treatment for lead poisoning in resource-limited settings where intravenous chelation is not feasible. Moreover, the finding of a lower ECP after inpatient treatment courses compared to after outpatient courses suggests that re-exposure to lead and non-adherence to treatment may have influenced the impact of outpatient treatments. Thus, it is essential that medical management of lead poisoning in resource-limited settings be accompanied by environmental remediation and that efforts are made to support adherence to treatment in the community by implementing directly observed treatment wherever possible. Additional Information Please access these websites via the online version of this summary at http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001739. A related PLOS ONE Research Article by Greig et al. provides information about the association between VBLLs and neurological features in children affected by the acute lead poisoning outbreak in Zamfara MSF provides information about the lead poisoning crisis in Zamfara State Human Rights Watch, an international organization that works to uphold human dignity and advance the cause of human rights for all, also provides information about lead poisoning in Zamfara State, including photographs and a video Tox Town, an interactive site about environmental health concerns from the US National Library of Medicine, provides information on exposure to lead (in English and Spanish) The US Environmental Protection Agency provides information on lead and lead poisoning (in English and Spanish) The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention provides information about lead in the environment and about its lead poisoning prevention program MedlinePlus provides a list of links to further information about lead poisoning (in English and Spanish)