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A total of 476 European isolates (310 Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, 150 C. neoformans var. neoformans, and 16 C. gattii species complex) from both clinical and environmental sources were analyzed by multi-locus sequence typing. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses were performed. Sequence analysis identified 74 sequence types among C. neoformans var. neoformans (VNIV), 65 among C. neoformans var. grubii (56 VNI, 8 VNII, 1 VNB), and 5 among the C. gattii species complex (4 VGI and 1 VGIV) isolates. ST23 was the most frequent genotype (22%) among VNI isolates which were mostly grouped in a large clonal cluster including 50% of isolates. Among VNIV isolates, a predominant genotype was not identified. A high percentage of autochthonous STs were identified in both VNI (71%) and VNIV (96%) group of isolates. The 16 European C. gattii species complex isolates analyzed in the present study originated all from the environment and all belonged to a large cluster endemic in the Mediterranean area. Population genetic analysis confirmed that VNI group of isolates were characterized by low variability and clonal expansion while VNIV by a higher variability and a number of recombination events. However, when VNI and VNIV environmental isolates were compared, they showed a similar population structure with a high percentage of shared mutations and the absence of fixed mutations. Also linkage disequilibrium analysis reveals differences between clinical and environmental isolates showing a key role of PLB1 allele combinations in host infection as well as the key role of LAC1 allele combinations for survival of the fungus in the environment. The present study shows that genetic comparison of clinical and environmental isolates represents a first step to understand the genetic characteristics that cause the shift of some genotypes from a saprophytic to a parasitic life style. © 2019 Elsevier Inc.

A total of 476 European isolates (310 Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii, 150 C. neoformans var. neoformans, and 16 C. gattii species complex) from both clinical and environmental sources were analyzed by multi-locus sequence typing. Phylogenetic and population genetic analyses were performed. Sequence analysis identified 74 sequence types among C. neoformans var. neoformans (VNIV), 65 among C. neoformans var. grubii (56 VNI, 8 VNII, 1 VNB), and 5 among the C. gattii species complex (4 VGI and 1 VGIV) isolates. ST23 was the most frequent genotype (22%) among VNI isolates which were mostly grouped in a large clonal cluster including 50% of isolates. Among VNIV isolates, a predominant genotype was not identified. A high percentage of autochthonous STs were identified in both VNI (71%) and VNIV (96%) group of isolates. The 16 European C. gattii species complex isolates analyzed in the present study originated all from the environment and all belonged to a large cluster endemic in the Mediterranean area. Population genetic analysis confirmed that VNI group of isolates were characterized by low variability and clonal expansion while VNIV by a higher variability and a number of recombination events. However, when VNI and VNIV environmental isolates were compared, they showed a similar population structure with a high percentage of shared mutations and the absence of fixed mutations. Also linkage disequilibrium analysis reveals differences between clinical and environmental isolates showing a key role of PLB1 allele combinations in host infection as well as the key role of LAC1 allele combinations for survival of the fungus in the environment. The present study shows that genetic comparison of clinical and environmental isolates represents a first step to understand the genetic characteristics that cause the shift of some genotypes from a saprophytic to a parasitic life style. C1 [Cogliati, Massimo] Univ Milan, Dip Sci Biomed Sallee, Via Pascal 36, I-20133 Milan, Italy. [Desnos-Ollivier, Marie] CNRS, UMR2000, Natl Reference Ctr Invas Mycoses & Antifungal, Inst Pasteur,Mol Mycol Unit, Paris, France. [McCormick-Smith, Ilka; Rickerts, Volker] Robert Koch Inst, Berlin, Germany. [Ferreira-Paim, Kennio; Meyer, Wieland] Univ Sydney, Marie Bashier Inst Emerging Infect Dis & Biosecur, Westmead Inst Med Res,Sydney Med Sch,Westmead Cli, Mol Mycol Res Lab,Ctr Infect Dis,Fac Med & Hlth,W, Westmead, NSW, Australia. [Ferreira-Paim, Kennio] Univ Fed Triangulo Mineiro, Dept Microbiol, Uberaba, MG, Brazil. [Boekhout, Teun; Hagen, Ferry; Theelen, Bart] Westerdijk Fungal Biodivers Inst, Utrecht, Netherlands. [Boekhout, Teun] Univ Amsterdam, IBED, Amsterdam, Netherlands. [Inacio, Joao; Alonso, Beatriz] Univ Brighton, Sch Pharm & Biomol Sci, Brighton, E Sussex, England. [Alonso, Beatriz] Hosp Gegorio Maranon, Inst Invest Sanitaria Gregorio Maranon IisGM, Madrid, Spain. [Colom, Maria F.] Univ Miguel Hernandez, Alicante, Spain. [Trilles, Luciana] Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio De Janeiro, Brazil. [Montagna, Maria Teresa] Univ Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy. [De Donno, Antonella] Univ Salento, DiSTeBA, Lecce, Italy. [Susever, Serdar] Cyprus Near East Univ, Nicosia, Cyprus. [Ergin, Cagri] Pamukkale Univ, Denizli, Turkey. [Velegraki, Aristea] Univ Athens, Med Sch, Athens, Greece. [Ellabib, Mohamed S.] Univ Tripoli, Med Coll, Tripoli, Libya. [Nardoni, Simona] Univ Pisa, Pisa, Italy. [Macci, Cristina] CNR, Res Inst Terr Ecosystems IRET, Pisa, Italy. [Trovato, Laura] Univ Catania, Catania, Italy. [Dipineto, Ludovico] Univ Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy. [Akcaglar, Sevim] Uludag Univ, Sch Med, Bursa, Turkey. [Mlinaric-Missoni, Emilija] Croatian Natl Inst Publ Hlth, Zagreb, Croatia. [Bertout, Sebastien] Univ Montpellier, Unite Mixte Int Rech Translat Infect VIH & Malad, Montpellier, France. [Venca, Ana C. F.] Inst Higiene & Med Trop, Lisbon, Portugal. [Sampaio, Ana C.] Univ Tras os Montes & Alto Douro, CITAB, Quinta Prados, Vila Real, Portugal. [Criseoa, Giuseppe] Univ Messina, Dept Chem Biol Pharmaceut & Environm Sci, Messina, Italy. [Ranque, Stephane] Aix Marseille Univ, IHU Mediterranee Infect, AP HM, IRD,SSA,VITROME, Marseille, France. [Cerikcioglu, Nilgun] Marmara Univ, Sch Med, Istanbul, Turkey. [Marchese, Anna] Univ Genoa, IRCCS Policlin San Martino Genova, Sez Microbiol DISC, Genoa, Italy. [Vezzulli, Luigi] Univ Genoa, Dipartimento Sci Terra Ambiente & Vita DISTAV, Genoa, Italy. [Ilkit, Macit] Univ Cukurova Saricam, Adana, Turkey. [Pasquale, Vincenzo] Univ Napoli Parthenope, Naples, Italy. [Polacheck, Itzhack] Hadassah Hebrew Univ, Med Ctr, Jerusalem, Israel. [Lockhart, Shawn R.] Ctr Dis Control & Prevent, Atlanta, GA USA.

The original article published in FEMS Yeast Research Vol. 16. Iss. 4; doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/femsyr/fow045 This paper has been updated to correct a spelling error concerning an author name. It previously showed as Giuseppe Griseo, however the correct spelling is Giuseppe Criseo.

Fundamental niche prediction of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in Europe is an important tool to understand where these pathogenic yeasts have a high probability to survive in the environment and therefore to identify the areas with high risk of infection. In this study, occurrence data for C. neoformans and C. gattii were compared by MaxEnt software with several bioclimatic conditions as well as with soil characteristics and land use. The results showed that C. gattii distribution can be predicted with high probability along the Mediterranean coast. The analysis of variables showed that its distribution is limited by low temperatures during the coldest season, and by heavy precipitations in the driest season. C. neoformans var. grubii is able to colonize the same areas of C. gattii but is more tolerant to cold winter temperatures and summer precipitations. In contrast, the C. neoformans var. neoformans map was completely different. The best conditions for its survival were displayed in sub-continental areas and not along the Mediterranean coasts. In conclusion, we produced for the first time detailed prediction maps of the species and varieties of the C. neoformans and C. gattii species complex in Europe and Mediterranean area. © 2017 Society for Applied Microbiology and John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Fundamental niche prediction of Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii in Europe is an important tool to understand where these pathogenic yeasts have a high probability to survive in the environment and therefore to identify the areas with high risk of infection. In this study, occurrence data for C. neoformans and C. gattii were compared by MaxEnt software with several bioclimatic conditions as well as with soil characteristics and land use. The results showed that C. gattii distribution can be predicted with high probability along the Mediterranean coast. The analysis of variables showed that its distribution is limited by low temperatures during the coldest season, and by heavy precipitations in the driest season. C. neoformans var. grubii is able to colonize the same areas of C. gattii but is more tolerant to cold winter temperatures and summer precipitations. In contrast, the C. neoformans var. neoformans map was completely different. The best conditions for its survival were displayed in sub-continental areas and not along the Mediterranean coasts. In conclusion, we produced for the first time detailed prediction maps of the species and varieties of the C. neoformans and C. gattii species complex in Europe and Mediterranean area.

In order to elucidate the distribution of Cryptococcus neoformans and C. gattii in the Mediterranean basin, an extensive environmental survey was carried out during 2012-2015. A total of 302 sites located in 12 countries were sampled, 6436 samples from 3765 trees were collected and 5% of trees were found to be colonized by cryptococcal yeasts. Cryptococcus neoformans was isolated from 177 trees and C. gattii from 13. Cryptococcus neoformans colonized 27% of Ceratonia, 10% of Olea, Platanus and Prunus trees and a lower percentage of other tree genera. The 13 C. gattii isolates were collected from five Eucalyptus, four Ceratonia, two Pinus and two Olea trees. Cryptococcus neoformans was distributed all around the Mediterranean basin, whereas C. gattii was isolated in Greece, Southern Italy and Spain, in agreement with previous findings from both clinical and environmental sources. Among C. neoformans isolates, VNI was the prevalent molecular type but VNII, VNIV and VNIII hybrid strains were also isolated. With the exception of a single VGIV isolate, all C. gattii isolates were VGI. The results confirmed the presence of both Cryptococcus species in the Mediterranean environment, and showed that both carob and olive trees represent an important niche for these yeasts.