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ObjectivesOlder parents continue to help children after these children have been adults for decades. We utilize a typology approach to assess who initiates the help. We ask whether profiles of help initiation are associated with how often older parents help and how they evaluate their helping behaviors.MethodsOlder parents (N = 241; Mage = 80.12) indicated the extent to which they volunteered to help children and helped per child's request. Parents reported their resources and obligation to help, child problems, frequency, and evaluation (rewards/stresses) of helping.ResultsLatent profile analysis reveals four profiles representing parents who are initiators (n = 65), responders (n = 56), initiators/responders (n = 50), and uninvolved (n = 69). Resources, needs, and individual beliefs differentiate profiles. Parents offer the same amount of help regardless of who initiates such help. Parents who are initiators/responders view helping as more rewarding than parents who are initiators and more stressful than uninvolved parents.DiscussionThis study reveals variation in the initiation of older parents' help and refines our understanding of family help in late life. Findings may suggest a parental expectation for children to be competent in adulthood regardless of their resources and willingness to help.

ObjectiveEvaluate the risk of female breast cancer associated with HIV-CXCR4 (X4) tropism as determined by various genotypic measures.MethodsA breast cancer case-control study, with pairwise comparisons of tropism determination methods, was conducted. From the Women's Interagency HIV Study repository, one stored plasma specimen was selected from 25 HIV-infected cases near the breast cancer diagnosis date and 75 HIV-infected control women matched for age and calendar date. HIV-gp120 V3 sequences were derived by Sanger population sequencing (PS) and 454-pyro deep sequencing (DS). Sequencing-based HIV-X4 tropism was defined using the geno2pheno algorithm, with both high-stringency DS [false-positive rate (3.5) and 2% X4 cutoff], and lower stringency DS (false-positive rate, 5.75 and 15% X4 cutoff). Concordance of tropism results by PS, DS, and previously performed phenotyping was assessed with kappa (κ) statistics. Case-control comparisons used exact P values and conditional logistic regression.ResultsIn 74 women (19 cases, 55 controls) with complete results, prevalence of HIV-X4 by PS was 5% in cases vs 29% in controls (P = 0.06; odds ratio, 0.14; confidence interval: 0.003 to 1.03). Smaller case-control prevalence differences were found with high-stringency DS (21% vs 36%, P = 0.32), lower stringency DS (16% vs 35%, P = 0.18), and phenotyping (11% vs 31%, P = 0.10). HIV-X4 tropism concordance was best between PS and lower stringency DS (93%, κ = 0.83). Other pairwise concordances were 82%-92% (κ = 0.56-0.81). Concordance was similar among cases and controls.ConclusionsHIV-X4 defined by population sequencing (PS) had good agreement with lower stringency DS and was significantly associated with lower odds of breast cancer.

Accurate co-receptor tropism (CRT) determination is critical for making treatment decisions in HIV management. We created a genotypic tropism prediction tool by utilizing the case-based reasoning (CBR) technique that attempts to solve new problems through applying the solution from similar past problems. V3 loop sequences from 732 clinical samples with diverse characteristics were used to build a case library. Additional sequence and molecular properties of the V3 loop were examined and used for similarity assessment. A similarity metric was defined based on each attribute's frequency in the CXCR4-using viruses. We implemented three other genotype-based tropism predictors, support vector machines (SVM), position specific scoring matrices (PSSM), and the 11/25 rule, and evaluated their performance as the ability to predict CRT compared to Monogram's enhanced sensitivity Trofile(®) assay (ESTA). Overall concordance of the CBR based tropism prediction algorithm was 81%, as compared to ESTA. Sensitivity to detect CXCR4 usage was 90% and specificity was at 73%. In comparison, sensitivity of the SVM, PSSM, and the 11/25 rule were 85%, 81%, and 36% respectively while achieving a specificity of 90% by SVM, 75% by PSSM, and 97% by the 11/25 rule. When we evaluated these predictors in an unseen dataset, higher sensitivity was achieved by the CBR algorithm (87%), compared to SVM (82%), PSSM (76%), and the 11/25 rule (33%), while maintaining similar level of specificity. Overall this study suggests that CBR can be utilized as a genotypic tropism prediction tool, and can achieve improved performance in independent datasets compared to model or rule based methods.

Based on 424 qualitative interviews with a racially, ethnically, and socio-economically diverse population of young people ranging in age from 21 to 38, the authors ponder the paradox of the evolving role for contemporary marriage within the developmental perspective of the transition to adulthood. The authors identify two groups: marriage naturalists and marriage planners. "Naturalists" comprise one fifth of the sample, are largely from rural America, and follow the fast-track into marriage that defined the mid-twentieth century. "Planners" comprise the remainder of the sample, are based in metropolitan areas, and follow an elongated transition to adulthood. The authors examine the views of each group on commitment and the nature of relationships, and apply their findings to the debates about whether marriage is resilient, in decline, or becoming deinstitutionalized. (Contains 1 table.)

Background: The introduction of C‐C chemokine receptor type‐5 (CCR5) antagonists as antiretroviral therapy has led to the need to study HIV co‐receptor tropism in different HIV‐1 subtypes and geographical locations. This study was undertaken to evaluate HIV‐1 co‐receptor tropism in the developing world where non‐B subtypes predominate, in order to assess the therapeutic and prophylactic potential of CCR5 antagonists in these regions. Methods: HIV‐1‐infected patients were recruited into this prospective, cross‐sectional, epidemiologic study from HIV clinics in South Africa, Uganda and India. Patients were infected with subtypes C (South Africa, India) or A or D (Uganda). HIV‐1 subtype and co‐receptor tropism were determined and analyzed with disease characteristics, including viral load and CD4[sup.+] and CD8[sup.+] T cell counts. Results: CCR5‐tropic (R5) HIV‐1 was detected in 96% of treatment‐naïve (TN) and treatment‐experienced (TE) patients in India, 71% of TE South African patients, and 86% (subtype A/A1) and 71% (subtype D) of TN and TE Ugandan patients. Dual/mixed‐tropic HIV‐1 was found in 4% of Indian, 25% of South African and 13% (subtype A/A1) and 29% (subtype D) of Ugandan patients. Prior antiretroviral treatment was associated with decreased R5 tropism; however, this decrease was less in subtype C from India (TE: 94%, TN: 97%) than in subtypes A (TE: 59%; TN: 91%) and D (TE: 30%; TN: 79%). R5 virus infection in all three subtypes correlated with higher CD4[sup.+] count. Conclusions: R5 HIV‐1 was predominant in TN individuals with HIV‐1 subtypes C, A, and D and TE individuals with subtypes C and A. Higher CD4[sup.+] count correlated with R5 prevalence, while treatment experience was associated with increased non‐R5 infection in all subtypes., Background Human immunodeficiency virus type‐1 (HIV‐1) is characterized by extensive genetic heterogeneity. Molecular epidemiologic studies have demonstrated that globally, the most prevalent forms of HIV‐1 are subtypes (clades) C, B [...]

While student loans play a large role in the financing of higher education, there has been relatively little qualitative work on how young adults understand their debt burdens and the debt's perceived future impact. We examine this topic utilizing a sample of 105 young people from working-, middle-, and upper middle-class backgrounds who experienced young adulthood during the Great Recession. While most respondents are accepting of debt at the time of postsecondary enrollment, their inability to meet the demands of their debt leads to frustration and anxiety. Further, many respondents are concerned that this debt will impact their ability to support themselves and transition into the role of a marital partner, although this varies across social class backgrounds and debt levels. We argue that this debt, and its corresponding repercussions, are likely to contribute to the continued bifurcation of family life in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth hormone (GH) is an underappreciated but important regulator of T cell development that can reverse age-related declines in thymopoiesis in rodents. Here, we report findings of a prospective randomized study examining the effects of GH on the immune system of HIV-1-infected adults. GH treatment was associated with increased thymic mass. In addition, GH treatment enhanced thymic output, as measured by both the frequency of T cell receptor rearrangement excision circles in circulating T cells and the numbers of circulating naive and total [CD4.sup.+] T cells. These findings provide compelling evidence that GH induces de novo T cell production and may, accordingly, facilitate [CD4.sup.+] T cell recovery in HIV-1-infected adults. Further, these randomized, prospective data have shown that thymic involution can be pharmacologically reversed in humans, suggesting that immune-based therapies could be used to enhance thymopoiesis in immunodeficient individuals., Introduction Infection with HIV-1 is frequently characterized by T cell loss and an increased risk of illness or death from infection. Upon provision of effective antiretroviral therapy (ARV), many patients [...]

A study was conducted to analyze the sex-based differences in CD4 T-cell (CD4) counts, which might be due to interleukin (IL) -7 essential for normal T-cell production and homeostasis. The results showed that circulating IL-7 levels were higher in HIV-1 infected women than in men, that might contribute to higher CD4 counts in women.

Despite the importance of understanding the prevalence, causes, and consequences of conflict and violence within families, the specific risk of violence following a family member's release from incarceration has been hard to ascertain. Research indicates that a significant percentage of persons released from incarceration will experience involvement in family violence in their life, yet it remains unclear whether this heightened risk exists due to larger family or structural contexts or whether incarceration itself leads to heightened risk of family violence after release. Using an integrative review methodology that combines results from both qualitative and quantitative studies, we review existing studies of family violence after incarceration to explore (1) the prevalence, (2) variation in measurement, (3) risk factors, and (4) protective factors for family violence after a family member's incarceration. Through a search of three separate databases for peer-reviewed and gray literature, we analyzed 26 studies that estimated any form of physical family violence after any family member had been incarcerated. Where reported, intimate partner violence occurs in almost a quarter of cases, although only four studies examine the prevalence of violence perpetrated against children by parents. Family violence history, weakened family support during incarceration, and substance use after release all emerged as persistent risk factors. Directions and opportunities for future research are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We hypothesized that HIV-1-mediated T-cell loss might induce the production of factors that are capable of stimulating lymphocyte development and expansion. Here we perform cross-sectional (n = 168) and longitudinal (n = 11) analyses showing that increased circulating levels of interleukin (IL)-7 are strongly associated with CD4+ T lymphopenia in HIV-1 disease. Using immunohistochemistry with quantitative image analysis, we demonstrate that IL-7 is produced by dendritic-like cells within peripheral lymphoid tissues and that IL-7 production by these cells is greatly increased in lymphocyte-depleted tissues. We propose that IL-7 production increases as part of a homeostatic response to T-cell depletion., Author(s): Laura A. Napolitano [1, 2]; Robert M. Grant [1, 2]; Steven G. Deeks [2]; Diane Schmidt [1]; Stephen C. De Rosa [5]; Leonore A. Herzenberg [5]; Brian G. Herndier [...]

Support of family members has been a long-standing interest of social scientists. Contemporary American families must provide support to members in a historical context wherein family inequality continues to rise. Based on the life course perspective, and utilizing qualitative, in-depth interviews with 50 multi-generational participants from the Family Exchanges Study, this article explores the mechanisms through which families across the socioeconomic spectrum engage in and perceive family support. We discuss both direct and indirect requests by family members for help and identify differences by family socioeconomic status. We also discuss how issues of reciprocity, views toward request propriety, and perceptions of appreciation guide family member responses to need. We argue that this cross-class comparison is particularly essential to further scholarly understands of family functioning and support amidst growing inequality in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In both Canada and the United States, middle-income families feel neglected by policymakers but struggle to balance their financial need and desire for government support on the one hand with neoliberal beliefs in self-reliance and self-responsibility on the other. The focus of this paper is on the tensions experienced by middle-income participants in both countries as they try to negotiate a place for themselves amid these competing discourses. Specifically, this paper analyzes participants’ struggle to juxtapose their place in the ‘shrinking' or ‘forgotten' middle class, against their desire to be ‘good' citizens who take responsibility for themselves and their families. This analysis plays out against the backdrop of different socio-political environments and in the context of the 2007-2009 global recession which exacerbated the already increasing pressure on the middle class. It is argued that these contexts have shaped how participants in each country feel about the government support they require, deserve, and reject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]