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Abstract To enhance and sustain movement accuracy, humans make corrections in subsequent trials based on previous errors. Trial-by-trial learning occurs unconsciously and has mostly been studied using reaching movements. Goal-directed projection movements, such as archery, have an inherent delay between releasing an object and observing an outcome (e.g. the arrival position of the object), and this delay may prevent trial-by-trial implicit learning. We aimed to investigate the learning in the projection movement and the impacts of the inherent delay. During the experiment, a joystick was flicked once to transport a cursor from the starting location to a target. To manipulate the length of the delay between the cursor release and outcome observation, the speed of the cursor movement was varied: a fast speed can lead to a short delay. We found trial-by-trial implicit learning under all speed conditions, and the error sensitivity was not significantly different across speed conditions. Furthermore, the error sensitivity depended on the target location, that is, the movement direction. The results indicate that trial-by-trial implicit learning occurred in goal-directed projection movement, despite the length of the inherent delay. Additionally, the degree of this learning was affected by the movement direction.

Visual errors induced by movement drive implicit corrections of that movement. When similar errors are experienced consecutively, does sensitivity to the error remain consistent each time? This study aimed to investigate the modulation of implicit error sensitivity through continuous exposure to the same errors. In the reaching task using visual error-clamp feedback, participants were presented with the same error in direction and magnitude for four consecutive trials. We found that implicit error sensitivity decreased after exposure to the second error. These results indicate that when visual errors occur consecutively, the sensorimotor system exhibits different responses, even for identical errors. The continuity of errors may be a factor that modulates error sensitivity.

Previous studies have demonstrated the effects of motor variability on motor adaptation. However, their findings have been inconsistent, suggesting that various factors affect the relationship between motor variability and adaptation. This study focused on the size of errors driving motor adaptation as one of the factors and examined the relationship between different error sizes. Thirty-one healthy young adults participated in a visuomotor task in which they made fast-reaching movements toward a target. Motor variability was measured in the baseline phase when a veridical feedback cursor was presented. In the adaptation phase, the feedback cursor was sometimes not reflected in the hand position and deviated from the target by 0°, 3°, 6°, or 12° counterclockwise or clockwise (i.e., error-clamp feedback). Movements during trials following trials with error-clamp feedback were measured to quantify implicit adaptation. Implicit adaptation was driven by errors presented through error-clamp feedback. Moreover, motor variability significantly correlated with implicit adaptation driven by a 12° error. The results suggested that motor variability accelerates implicit adaptation when a larger error occurs. As such a trend was not observed when smaller errors occurred, the relationship between motor variability and motor adaptation might have been affected by the error size driving implicit adaptation.