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[Display omitted] • CDs and CMs with good biocompatibility were prepared. • CMB and CMC stimulated the maturation of DC cells and activated T cells. • CMB and CMC can target LNs and induce an immune response to treat primary and distal tumor models. • CMB and CMC can specifically target B16F10 and CT26 tumors, respectively. Although therapeutic nanovaccines have made a mark in cancer immunotherapy, the shortcomings such as poor homing ability of lymph nodes (LNs), low antigen presentation efficiency and low antitumor efficacy have hindered their clinical transformation. Accordingly, we prepared advanced nanovaccines (CMB and CMC) by integrating carbon dots (CDs) with tumor-associated antigens (B16F10 and CT26). These nanovaccines could forwardly target tumors harbouring LNs, induce strong immunogenicity for activating cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), thereby readily eliminating tumor cells and suppressing primary/distal tumor growth. This work provides a promising therapeutic vaccination strategy to enhance cancer immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Haemonchus contortus (H. contortus), a nematode with global prevalence, poses a major threat to the gastrointestinal health of sheep and goats. In an effort to combat this parasite, a nanovaccine was created using a recombinant ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) antigen encapsulated within poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA). This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of this nanovaccine in providing protection against H. contortus infection. Methods: Fifteen goats were randomly divided into three groups. The experimental group received two doses of the PLGA encapsulated rHcARF1 (rHcARF1-PLGA) nanovaccine on days 0 and 14. Fourteen days after the second immunization, both the experimental and positive control groups were challenged with 8000 infective larvae (L3) of H. contortus, while the negative control group remained unvaccinated and unchallenged. At the end of the experiment on the 63rd day, all animals were humanly euthanized. Results: The results showed that the experimental group had significantly higher levels of sera IgG, IgA, and IgE antibodies, as well as increased concentrations of cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-9, IL-17, and TGF-β, compared to the negative control group after immunization. Following the L3 challenge, the experimental group exhibited a 47.5% reduction in mean eggs per gram of feces (EPG) and a 55.7% reduction in worm burden as compared to the positive control group. Conclusions: These findings indicate that the nanovaccine expressing rHcARF1 offers significant protective efficacy against H. contortus infection in goats. The results also suggest the need for more precise optimization of the antigen dose or a reassessment of the vaccination regimen. Additionally, the small sample size limits the statistical rigor and the broader applicability of the findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exhilarating breakthroughs in the treatment of autoimmune diseases through antigen-specific therapies offer new hope for patients. Herein, a novel antigen-specific reverse micelle platform is proposed: blank liposomes prepared with 1, 2-diolyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) and cholesterol (Chol) are mixed with an aqueous solution of the encapsulated antigens and immunomodulators, lyophilized, and then reconstituted in oil. Subcutaneous injection of 100 μL of a reverse micelle vaccine loaded with 10 μg of MOG35–55 and 30 μg of dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP) before experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE, a multiple sclerosis model) establishment directly blocked the development of clinical symptoms. Furthermore, the same vaccine delayed and attenuated clinical symptoms in an established mouse model of EAE. Conversely, the reverse micelle vaccine loaded with an unrelated antigen OVA failed to alleviate paralysis in mice, highlighting the crucial aspect of antigen specificity. Dose-dependent effects were observed in both the prevention and treatment of EAE, with clinical scores of 0 being achieved during the treatment at single DSP doses of up to 50 μg at the MOG35–55 dose of 10 μg. The treatment of the reverse micelle vaccine induced Treg cell proliferation, accounting for the tolerance to the pathogenic antigens and improved outcomes. Overall, the designed reverse micelle vaccine provided a universal platform to encapsulate antigens and immunomodulators that restore tolerance of antigens and then demonstrated the therapeutic promise in autoimmune diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing a novel class of vaccine is pivotal for eliminating and eradicating malaria. Preceding investigations demonstrated partial blocking activity in malaria transmission against recombinant vaccine PfHAP2-GCS1 and conserved region of the cd loop. The effectiveness of immune response varies with the size and shape of the self-assembly of peptide nanoparticles (SAPNs) displaying antigen, affected by different components in refolding buffers. Plasmodium falciparum Generative Cell Specific 1 (PfGCS1), a promising malaria transmission-blocking vaccine (TBV) candidate, was expressed, purified, and followed by a four-step refolding process to form nanoparticles (PfGCS1-SAPNs). The influence of buffer components on the size and shape of SAPNs was investigated by DLS and FESEM. Furthermore, the immunogenicity of nanostructures was assessed in different mouse groups. The results showed that PfGCS1-SAPN was immunogenic and its administration with Poly (I:C), stimulated humoral and cellular responses in the mouse model. In the immunized mice groups, the level of IgG antibodies against PfGCS1-SAPN was significantly increased in different time points (second and third boost) and heterogeneous boosters. The various IgG-subclasses profile shifted to Th1, Th2, or Th1/Th2 mix responses in mice immunized with PfGCS1-SAPN refolded in different buffers, indicating a prerequisite for further investigations to optimize vaccine formulation to enhance and modulate Th1/cellular responses. Such studies pave the way to improve biophysical features related to the nanoparticles' size, shape, and conformational epitopes of candidate antigens and T- and B-cells presented on the superficial structure to elicit robust immune responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jing Zhao,* Jiuxiang He,* Xiaoyan Ding, Yuxin Zhou, Minchi Liu, Xiaozhong Chen, Wenxuan Quan, Dong Hua, Jun Tong, Jintao Li College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, People’s Republic of China*These authors contributed equally to this workCorrespondence: Jintao Li, College of Basic Medicine, Army Medical University, Gaotanyan Street, No. 30, Shapingba District, Chongqing, 400038, People’s Republic of China, Tel +1-86-23-68771389, Fax +1-86-23-68771391, Email ljtqms@tmmu.edu.cnBackground: The global prevalence of Dengue virus (DENV) infection poses a significant health risk, urging the need for effective vaccinations. Peptide vaccines, known for their capacity to induce comprehensive immunity against multiple virus serotypes, offer promise due to their stability, safety, and design flexibility. Spherical nucleic acid (SNA), particularly those with gold nanoparticle cores, present an attractive avenue for enhancing peptide vaccine efficacy due to their modularity and immunomodulatory properties.Methods: The spherical nucleic acid-TBB (SNA-TBB), a novel nanovaccine construct, was fabricated through the co-functionalization process of SNA with epitope peptide, targeting all four serotypes of the DENV. This innovative approach aims to enhance immunogenicity and provide broad-spectrum protection against DENV infections. The physicochemical properties of SNA-TBB were characterized using dynamic light scattering, zeta potential measurement, and transmission electron microscopy. In vitro assessments included endocytosis studies, cytotoxicity evaluation, bone marrow-dendritic cells (BMDCs) maturation and activation analysis, cytokine detection, RNA sequencing, and transcript level analysis in BMDCs. In vivo immunization studies in mice involved evaluating IgG antibody titers, serum protection against DENV infection and safety assessment of nanovaccines.Results: SNA-TBB demonstrated successful synthesis, enhanced endocytosis, and favorable physicochemical properties. In vitro assessments revealed no cytotoxicity and promoted BMDCs maturation. Cytokine analyses exhibited heightened IL-12p70, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels. Transcriptomic analysis highlighted genes linked to BMDCs maturation and immune responses. In vivo studies immunization with SNA-TBB resulted in elevated antigen-specific IgG antibody levels and conferred protection against DENV infection in neonatal mice. Evaluation of in vivo safety showed no signs of adverse effects in vital organs.Conclusion: The study demonstrates the successful development of SNA-TBB as a promising nanovaccine platform against DENV infection and highlights the potential of SNA-based peptide vaccines as a strategy for developing safe and effective antiviral immunotherapy.Keywords: nanovaccine, dengue virus, spherical nucleic acid, immunogenicity, peptide antigen

Qian Cao,1,* Ruijie Zhou,2,* Songlin Guo,3 Kai Meng,4 Xiaojuan Yang,5 Miao Liu,1 Bin Ma,6 Chunxia Su,5 Xiangguo Duan2 1The First School of Clinical Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China; 2School of Inspection, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China; 3Institute of Medical Sciences, General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China; 4Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750003, People’s Republic of China; 5School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China; 6Department of Oncology Surgery, the First People’s Hospital of Yinchuan, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China*These authors contributed equally to this workCorrespondence: Chunxia Su, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China, Email 1651085195@qq.com Xiangguo Duan, School of Inspection, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, 750004, People’s Republic of China, Email 2455281549@qq.comBackground: Tumor vaccines have achieved remarkable progress in treating patients with various tumors in clinical studies. Nevertheless, extensive research has also revealed that tumor vaccines are not up to expectations for the treatment of solid tumors due to their low immunogenicity. Therefore, there is an urgent need to design a tumor vaccine that can stimulate a broad anti-tumor immune response.Methods: In this work, we developed a nanovaccine (NP-TCL@APS), which includes nanoparticles loaded with colorectal cancer tumor cell lysates (TCL) and Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) into poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) to induce a robust innate immune response. The NP-TCL@APS was identified by transmission electron microscopy and Malvern laser particle size analyzer. The killing and immune activation effects of NP-TCL@APS were evaluated in vitro. Finally, safety and anti-tumor efficacy were evaluated in the colorectal cancer tumor-bearing mouse model.Results: We found that NP-TCL@APS was preferentially uptaken by DC and further promoted the activation of DC in vitro. Additionally, nanoparticles codelivery of TCL and APS enhanced the antigen-specific CD8+ T cell response and suppressed the growth of tumors in mouse models with good biocompatibility.Conclusion: We successfully prepared a nanovaccine termed NP-TCL@APS, which can promote the maturation of DC and induce strong responses by T lymphocytes to exert anti-tumor effects. The strategy proposed here is promising for generating a tumor vaccine and can be extended to various types of cancers.Keywords: colorectal cancer, nanovaccine, PLGA, Astragalus polysaccharide, tumor cell lysates (TCL)

Senescent cancer cells are endowed with high immunogenic potential that has been leveraged to elicit antitumor immunity and potentially complement anticancer therapies. However, the efficacy of live senescent cancer cell‐based vaccination is limited by interference from immunosuppressive senescence‐associated secretory phenotype and pro‐tumorigenic capacity of senescent cells. Here, a senescent cancer cell‐based nanovaccine with strong immunogenicity and favorable potential for immunotherapy is reported. The biomimetic nanovaccine integrating a senescent cancer cell membrane‐coated nanoadjuvant outperforms living senescent cancer cells in enhancing dendritic cells (DCs) internalization, improving lymph node targeting, and enhancing immune responses. In contrast to nanovaccines generated from immunogenic cell death‐induced tumor cells, senescent nanovaccines facilitate DC maturation, eliciting superior antitumor protection and improving therapeutic outcomes in melanoma‐challenged mice with fewer side effects when combined with αPD‐1. The study suggests a versatile biomanufacturing approach to maximize immunogenic potential and minimize adverse effects of senescent cancer cell‐based vaccination and advances the design of biomimetic nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Nanovaccine treatment is an exciting area of research in immunology and personalized medicine, holding great promise for enhancing immune responses and targeting specific diseases. Their small size allows efficient uptake by immune cells, leading to robust immune activation. They can incorporate immune-stimulating molecules to boost vaccine efficacy. Therefore, nanovaccine can be personalized to target tumor-specific antigens, activating the immune system against cancer cells. Currently, there have been ample evidence showing the effectiveness and potential of nanovaccine as a treatment for cancer. However, there was rare bibliometric analysis of nanovaccine for cancer. Here we performed a bibliometric and visual analysis of published studies related to nanovaccine treatment for cancer, providing the trend of future development of nanovaccine. Methods: We collected the literatures based on the Web of Science Core Collection SCI-Expanded database. The bibliometric analysis was performed via utilizing visualization analysis tools VOSviewer, Co-Occurrence (COOC), Citespace, Bibliometrix (R-Tool of R-Studio), and HitCite. Results: A total of 517 literatures were included in this study. China is the country with the most publications and the highest total local citation score (TLCS). The Chinese Academy of Sciences holds the largest research count in this field and the most prolific author is Deling Kong from Nankai University. The most prominent journal for publishing in this area is Biomaterials. The researches mainly focus on the therapeutic process of tumor nanovaccines, the particle composition and the application of nanovaccines, suggesting the potential hotspots and trends of nanovaccine. Conclusion: In this study, we summarized the characteristics and variation trends of publications involved in nanovaccine, and categorized the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals, hotspots and trends regarding the nanovaccine for cancer. With the continuous development of nanomaterials and tumor immunotherapy, nanovaccine for cancer provides a research field of significant clinical value and potential application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aeromonas hydrophila, an opportunistic warm water pathogen, has always been a threat to aquaculture, leading to substantial economic losses. Vaccination of the cultured fish would effectively prevent Aeromoniasis, and recent advancements in nanotechnology show promise for efficacious vaccines. Oral delivery would be the most practical and convenient method of vaccine delivery in a grow-out pond. This study studied the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a nanoparticle-loaded outer membrane protein A from A. hydrophila in the zebrafish model. The protein was over-expressed, purified, and encapsulated using poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles via the double emulsion method. The PLGA nanoparticles loaded with recombinant OmpA (rOmpA) exhibited a size of 295 ± 15.1 nm, an encapsulation efficiency of 72.52%, and a polydispersity index of 0.292 ± 0.07. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the spherical and isolated nature of the PLGA-rOmpA nanoparticles. The protective efficacy in A. hydrophila-infected zebrafish after oral administration of the nanovaccine resulted in relative percentage survival of 77.7. Gene expression studies showed significant upregulation of immune genes in the vaccinated fish. The results demonstrate the usefulness of oral administration of nanovaccine-loaded rOmpA as a potential vaccine since it induced a robust immune response and conferred adequate protection against A. hydrophila in zebrafish, Danio rerio. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While first generation SARS-CoV-2 vaccines were effective in slowing the spread and severity of disease during the COVID-19 pandemic, there is a need for vaccines capable of inducing durable and broad immunity against emerging variants of concern. Nanoparticle-based vaccines (i.e., "nanovaccines") composed of polyanhydride nanoparticles and pentablock copolymer micelles have previously been shown to protect against respiratory pathogens, including influenza A virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and Yersinia pestis. In this work, a nanovaccine containing SARS-CoV-2 spike and nucleocapsid antigens was designed and optimized. The optimized nanovaccine induced long-lived systemic IgG antibody responses against wild-type SARS-CoV-2 virus. In addition, the nanovaccine induced antibody responses capable of neutralization and cross-reactivity to multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants (including B.1.1.529) and antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses. Finally, the nanovaccine protected mice against a lethal SARS-CoV-2 challenge, setting the stage for advancing particle-based SARS-CoV-2 nanovaccines. First-generation SARS-CoV-2 vaccines were effective in slowing the spread and limiting the severity of COVID-19. However, current vaccines target only one antigen of the virus (i.e., spike protein) and focus on the generation of neutralizing antibodies, which may be less effective against new, circulating strains. In this work, we demonstrated the ability of a novel nanovaccine platform, based on polyanhydride nanoparticles and pentablock copolymer micelles, to generate durable and broad immunity against SARS-CoV-2. These nanovaccines induced long-lasting (> 62 weeks) serum antibody responses which neutralized binding to ACE2 receptors and were cross-reactive to multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants. Additionally, mice immunized with the SARS-CoV-2 nanovaccine showed a significant increase of antigen-specific T cell responses in the draining lymph nodes and spleens. Together, these nanovaccine-induced immune responses contributed to the protection of mice against a lethal challenge of live SARS-CoV-2 virus, indicating that this nanovaccine platform is a promising next-generation SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Infectious coryza (IC) is an acute upper respiratory disease of chicken caused by Avibacterium (A.) paragallinarum. This disease results in an increased culling rate in meat chicken and a marked decrease in egg production (10% to more than 40%) in laying and breeding hens. Vaccines were first used against IC and effectively controlled the disease. Nanotechnology provides an excellent way to develop a new generation of vaccines. NPs have been widely used in vaccine design as adjuvants and antigen delivery vehicles and as antibacterial agents; thus, they can be used as inactivators for bacterial culture. In this research, the antibacterial effects of several nanoparticles (NPs), such as silicon dioxide with chitosan (SiO2-CS), oleoyl-chitosan (O.CS), silicon dioxide (SiO2), and iron oxide (Fe3O4), on A. paragallinarum were studied. Additionally, different A. paragallinarum vaccines were made using the same nanomaterials at a concentration of 400 µg/ml to help control infectious coryza disease in chicken. A concentration of 400 µg/ml of all the NPs tested was the best concentration for the inactivation of A. paragallinarum. Additionally, this study showed that the infectious coryza vaccine adjuvanted with SiO2 NPs had the highest immune response, followed by the infectious coryza vaccine adjuvanted with Fe3O4 NPs, the infectious coryza vaccine adjuvanted with SiO2-CS NPs, and the infectious coryza vaccine adjuvanted with O.CS NPs in comparison with the infectious coryza vaccine adjuvanted with liquid paraffin (a commercial vaccine). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the whole virus or spike protein of pigs, d coronavirus (PDCoV) as an immunogen may have unrelated antigenic epitope interference. Therefore, it is essential for screening and identifying advantageous protective antigen epitopes. In addition, immunoinformatic tools are described as an important aid in determining protective antigenic epitopes. In this study, the primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of vaccines were measured using ExPASy, PSIPRED 4.0, and trRosetta servers. Meanwhile, the molecular docking analysis and vector of the candidate nanovaccine were constructed. The immune response of the candidate vaccine was simulated and predicted using the C-ImmSim server. This experiment screened B cell epitopes with strong immunogenicity and high conservation, CTL epitopes, and Th epitopes with IFN-γ and IL-4 positive spike proteins. Ferritin is used as a self-assembled nanoparticle element for designing candidate nanovaccine. After analysis, it has been found to be soluble, stable, non-allergenic, and has a high affinity for its target receptor, TLR-3. The preliminary simulation analysis results show that the candidate nanovaccine has the ability to induce a humoral and cellular immune response. Therefore, it may provide a new theoretical basis for research on coronavirus self-assembled nanovaccines. It may be an effective candidate vaccine for controlling and preventing PDCoV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The knowledge base in the field of vaccination research and development has greatly improved. In the present era, utilizing a novel vaccine design and optimization strategy improves the vaccination efficiency and activity. In this regard, a novel drug delivery system produces nanosized, vaccine-loaded carrier molecules, which is called Nanovaccine. The advancement in nanovaccine and improved technology comes under preclinical and clinical trials, whereas different routes of administration strategy are applied against infectious diseases. The nanovaccine has high efficiency and immunogenicity compared to the traditional vaccine. Its long-lasting effect reduces the booster dose as well. One of the factors like routes of administration affects the efficiency of nanovaccine. The parenteral and mucosal vaccination is a traditional administration approach. In order to increase the safety and effectiveness of vaccines, innovative administration methods such as needless injection and polymeric formulations are now being developed. The presented paper shows a mechanism involved in nanovaccine delivery, and a method of administration via a different route, to learn more about their possible effects on immunogenicity, effectiveness, safety, sustained release and dose frequency reduction. The various advanced vaccine delivery methods, with special emphasis on its industrial and regulatory requirements for the higher production of nanovaccine, are also discussed. Illustrations of nanovaccine delivery systems overcoming barriers such as mucus layer and enzymatic degradation. Diagrams demonstrating the potential benefits of nanovaccines in enhancing immune response and providing targeted protection against pathogens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although protein subunit vaccines generally have acceptable safety profiles with precise antigenic content, limited immunogenicity can lead to unsatisfactory humoral and cellular immunity and the need for vaccine adjuvants and delivery system. Herein, we assess a vaccine adjuvant system comprising Quillaja Saponaria-21(QS-21) and cobalt porphyrin polymeric micelles that enabling the display of His-tagged antigen on its surface. The nanoscale micelles promote antigen uptake and dendritic cell activation to induce robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte response and germinal center formation. Using the recombinant protein antigens from influenza A and rabies virus, the micelle adjuvant system elicited robust antiviral responses and protected mice from lethal challenge. In addition, this system could be combined with other antigens to induce high titers of neutralizing antibodies in models of three highly pathogenic viral pathogens: Ebola virus, Marburg virus, and Nipah virus. Collectively, our results demonstrate this polymeric micelle adjuvant system can be used as a potent nanoplatform for developing antiviral vaccine countermeasures that promote humoral and cellular immunity. Synopsis: To address the limited immunogenicity of current protein subunit vaccines and improve the surface display of antigens, a universal nanoplatform based on cobalt porphyrin (PLA-Pyro-Co2+) and Quillaja Saponaria-21(QS-21) was developed for antiviral vaccines. Polymeric micelles (PPCD) were designed to deliver adjuvants and display antigens. This co-delivery system significantly improved the immune effect of protein vaccines. HA@PPCDQ nanovaccine rapidly accumulated in the lymph nodes, activating DCs and promoting antigen presentation and inducing a strong antigen‐specific T cell response. HA@PPCDQ micelles promoted germinal center formation, inducing high-titer antibody production and protecting mice from lethal IAV challenge. PPCDQ nanocarrier provided a universal vaccine platform for multiple pathogenic pathogens including IAV, Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Nipah virus, and rabies virus. To address the limited immunogenicity of current protein subunit vaccines and improve the surface display of antigens, a universal nanoplatform based on cobalt porphyrin (PLA-Pyro-Co2+) and Quillaja Saponaria-21(QS-21) was developed for antiviral vaccines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colorectal cancer(CRC) ranks in third place in terms of incidence but second in terms of mortality. Cancer vaccine, as a novel immunotherapy, presents tumor antigens to human immune system and further elicits anti-tumor immune response, leading to long-term immune memory. This review summarized representative research progress in both clinical and basic scenario of past five years, and prospected the future of CRC vaccine.

Abstract Although protein subunit vaccines generally have acceptable safety profiles with precise antigenic content, limited immunogenicity can lead to unsatisfactory humoral and cellular immunity and the need for vaccine adjuvants and delivery system. Herein, we assess a vaccine adjuvant system comprising Quillaja Saponaria-21(QS-21) and cobalt porphyrin polymeric micelles that enabling the display of His-tagged antigen on its surface. The nanoscale micelles promote antigen uptake and dendritic cell activation to induce robust cytotoxic T lymphocyte response and germinal center formation. Using the recombinant protein antigens from influenza A and rabies virus, the micelle adjuvant system elicited robust antiviral responses and protected mice from lethal challenge. In addition, this system could be combined with other antigens to induce high titers of neutralizing antibodies in models of three highly pathogenic viral pathogens: Ebola virus, Marburg virus, and Nipah virus. Collectively, our results demonstrate this polymeric micelle adjuvant system can be used as a potent nanoplatform for developing antiviral vaccine countermeasures that promote humoral and cellular immunity.

Abstract Enhancing immune response activation through the synergy of effective antigen delivery and immune enhancement using natural, biodegradable materials with immune-adjuvant capabilities is challenging. Here, we present NAPS L.p that can activate the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, an amphiphilic exopolysaccharide, as a potential self-assembly adjuvant delivery platform. Its molecular structure and unique properties exhibited remarkable self-assembly, forming a homogeneous nanovaccine with ovalbumin (OVA) as the model antigen. When used as an adjuvant, NAPS L.p significantly increased OVA uptake by dendritic cells. In vivo imaging revealed prolonged pharmacokinetics of NAPS L. p -delivered OVA compared to OVA alone. Notably, NAPS L.p induced elevated levels of specific serum IgG and isotype titers, enhancing rejection of B16-OVA melanoma xenografts in vaccinated mice. Additionally, NAPS L.p formulation improved therapeutic effects, inhibiting tumor growth, and increasing animal survival rates. The nanovaccine elicited CD4+ and CD8+ T cell-based immune responses, demonstrating the potential for melanoma prevention. Furthermore, NAPS L.p -based vaccination showed stronger protective effects against influenza compared to Al (OH)3 adjuvant. Our findings suggest NAPS L.p as a promising, natural self-adjuvanting delivery platform to enhance vaccine design across applications.

Enhancing immune response activation through the synergy of effective antigen delivery and immune enhancement using natural, biodegradable materials with immune-adjuvant capabilities is challenging. Here, we present NAPSL.p that can activate the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway, an amphiphilic exopolysaccharide, as a potential self-assembly adjuvant delivery platform. Its molecular structure and unique properties exhibited remarkable self-assembly, forming a homogeneous nanovaccine with ovalbumin (OVA) as the model antigen. When used as an adjuvant, NAPSL.p significantly increased OVA uptake by dendritic cells. In vivo imaging revealed prolonged pharmacokinetics of NAPSL. p-delivered OVA compared to OVA alone. Notably, NAPSL.p induced elevated levels of specific serum IgG and isotype titers, enhancing rejection of B16-OVA melanoma xenografts in vaccinated mice. Additionally, NAPSL.p formulation improved therapeutic effects, inhibiting tumor growth, and increasing animal survival rates. The nanovaccine elicited CD4+ and CD8+ T cell-based immune responses, demonstrating the potential for melanoma prevention. Furthermore, NAPSL.p-based vaccination showed stronger protective effects against influenza compared to Al (OH)3 adjuvant. Our findings suggest NAPSL.p as a promising, natural self-adjuvanting delivery platform to enhance vaccine design across applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Swine Influenza A Virus (IAV-S) imposes a significant impact on the pork industry and has been deemed a significant threat to global public health due to its zoonotic potential. The most effective method of preventing IAV-S is vaccination. While there are tremendous efforts to control and prevent IAV-S in vulnerable swine populations, there are considerable challenges in developing a broadly protective vaccine against IAV-S. These challenges include the consistent diversification of IAV-S, increasing the strength and breadth of adaptive immune responses elicited by vaccination, interfering maternal antibody responses, and the induction of vaccine-associated enhanced respiratory disease after vaccination. Current vaccination strategies are often not updated frequently enough to address the continuously evolving nature of IAV-S, fail to induce broadly cross-reactive responses, are susceptible to interference, may enhance respiratory disease, and can be expensive to produce. Here, we review the challenges and current status of universal IAV-S vaccine research. We also detail the current standard of licensed vaccines and their limitations in the field. Finally, we review recently described novel vaccines and vaccine platforms that may improve upon current methods of IAV-S control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is a zoonotic parasitic disease, resulting from being infected with the metacestode larvae of the tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis (E. multilocularis). Novel prophylactic and therapeutic interventions are urgently needed since the current chemotherapy displays limited efficiency in AE treatment. Bioengineered nano cellular membrane vesicles are widely used for displaying the native conformational epitope peptides because of their unique structure and biocompatibility. In this study, four T‐cells and four B‐cells dominant epitope peptides of E. multilocularis with high immunogenicity were engineered into the Vero cell surface to construct a membrane vesicle nanovaccine for the treatment of AE. The results showed that the nanovesicle vaccine can efficiently activate dendritic cells, induce specific T/B cells to form a mutually activated circuit, and inhibit E. multilocularis infection. This study presents for the first time a nanovaccine strategy that can completely eliminate the burden of E. multilocularis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monkeypox (mpox) is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV) of the orthopoxvirus genus. The emergence and global spread of mpox in 2022 was declared as a public health emergency by World Health Organization. This mpox pandemic alarmed us that mpox still threaten global public health. Live vaccines could be used for immunization for this disease with side effects. New alternative vaccines are urgently needed for this re-emerging disease. Specific antibody responses play key roles for protection against MPXV, therefore, vaccines that induce high humoral immunity will be ideal candidates. In the present study, we developed thermostable nanovaccine candidates for mpox by conjugating MPXV antigens with thermostable nanoscafolds. Three MPXV protective antigens, L1, A29, and A33, and the thermostable Aquafex aeolicus lumazine synthase (AaLS), were expressed in E. coli and purified by Ni-NTA methods. The nanovaccines were generated by conjugation of the antigens with AaLS. Thermal stability test results showed that the nanovaccines remained unchanged after one week storage under 37℃ and only partial degradation under 60℃, indicating high thermostability. Very interesting, one dose immunization with the nanovaccine could induce high potent antibody responses, and two dose induced 2-month high titers of antibodes. In vitro virus neutralization test showed that nanovaccine candidates induced significantly higher levels of neutralization antibodies than monomers. These results indicated that the AaLS conjugation nanovaccines of MPXV antigens are highly thermostable in terms of storage and antigenic, being good alternative vaccine candidates for this re-emerging disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Senescent cancer cells are endowed with high immunogenic potential that has been leveraged to elicit antitumor immunity and potentially complement anticancer therapies. However, the efficacy of live senescent cancer cell‐based vaccination is limited by interference from immunosuppressive senescence‐associated secretory phenotype and pro‐tumorigenic capacity of senescent cells. Here, a senescent cancer cell‐based nanovaccine with strong immunogenicity and favorable potential for immunotherapy is reported. The biomimetic nanovaccine integrating a senescent cancer cell membrane‐coated nanoadjuvant outperforms living senescent cancer cells in enhancing dendritic cells (DCs) internalization, improving lymph node targeting, and enhancing immune responses. In contrast to nanovaccines generated from immunogenic cell death‐induced tumor cells, senescent nanovaccines facilitate DC maturation, eliciting superior antitumor protection and improving therapeutic outcomes in melanoma‐challenged mice with fewer side effects when combined with αPD‐1. The study suggests a versatile biomanufacturing approach to maximize immunogenic potential and minimize adverse effects of senescent cancer cell‐based vaccination and advances the design of biomimetic nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy.

Acinetobacter baumannii is a leading cause of antibiotic-resistant nosocomial infections with high mortality rates, yet there is currently no clinically approved vaccine formulation. During the onset of A. baumannii infection, neutrophils are the primary responders and play a major role in resisting the pathogen. Here, we design a biomimetic nanotoxoid for antivirulence vaccination by using neutrophil membrane-coated nanoparticles to safely capture secreted A. baumannii factors. Vaccination with the nanotoxoid formulation rapidly mobilizes innate immune cells and promotes pathogen-specific adaptive immunity. In murine models of pneumonia, septicemia, and superficial wound infection, immunization with the nanovaccine offers significant protection, improving survival and reducing signs of acute inflammation. Lower bacterial burdens are observed in vaccinated animals regardless of the infection route. Altogether, neutrophil nanotoxoids represent an effective platform for eliciting multivalent immunity to protect against multidrug-resistant A. baumannii in a wide range of disease conditions.

Abstract Background Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori), is an established causative factor for the development of gastric cancer and the induction of persistent stomach infections that may lead to peptic ulcers. In recent decades, several endeavours have been undertaken to develop a vaccine for H. pylori, although none have advanced to the clinical phase. The development of a successful H. pylori vaccine is hindered by particular challenges, such as the absence of secure mucosal vaccines to enhance local immune responses, the absence of identified antigens that are effective in vaccinations, and the absence of recognized indicators of protection. Methods The DNA vaccine was chemically cloned, and the cloning was verified using PCR and restriction enzyme digestion. The efficacy of the vaccination was investigated. The immunogenicity and immune-protective efficacy of the vaccination were assessed in BALB/c mice. This study demonstrated that administering a preventive Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH Nanovaccine directly into the stomach effectively triggered a robust immune response to protect against H. pylori infection in mice. Results The level of immune protection achieved with this nano vaccine was similar to that observed when using the widely accepted formalin-killed H. pylori Hel 305 as a positive control. The Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH Nanovaccine composition elicited significant mucosal and systemic antigen-specific antibody responses and strong intestinal and systemic Th1 responses. Moreover, the activation of IL-17R signaling is necessary for the defensive Th1 immune responses in the intestines triggered by Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH. Conclusion Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH is a potential Nanovaccine for use in an oral vaccine versus H. pylori infection, according to our findings.

Objective(s): Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the critical multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. Vaccination could offer dual benefits by preventing sepsis caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and curtailing the rise and selection of antimicrobial resistance due to excessive antibiotic use. With this in mind, we designed a vaccine candidate made of gold nanoparticles conjugated to pilin IV protein. Pilin IV protein is an important virulence factor in the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa infections. Materials and Methods: Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized. The Gold nanoparticles were conjugated to the recombinant protein pilin IV. The recombinant protein pilin IV was emulsified in Montanide ISA 266’s adjuvant and was administered to BALB/c mice model via subcutaneous injection. The studied groups included recombinant protein with gold nanoparticles, recombinant protein with Montanide ISA 266’s adjuvant, and the control group. After blood sampling at the appropriate time points, ELISA test was performed on the serum of the mice groups. Resuls: The results showed that the two studied groups could stimulate the mouse’s immune system. Both IgG antibody subclasses were stimulated. Conclusion: This compound can be a new candidate for recombinant vaccine design against P. aeruginosa as a dexterous pathogen.

Background: Haemonchus contortus (H. contortus), a nematode with global prevalence, poses a major threat to the gastrointestinal health of sheep and goats. In an effort to combat this parasite, a nanovaccine was created using a recombinant ADP-ribosylation factor 1 (ARF1) antigen encapsulated within poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA). This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of this nanovaccine in providing protection against H. contortus infection. Methods: Fifteen goats were randomly divided into three groups. The experimental group received two doses of the PLGA encapsulated rHcARF1 (rHcARF1-PLGA) nanovaccine on days 0 and 14. Fourteen days after the second immunization, both the experimental and positive control groups were challenged with 8000 infective larvae (L3) of H. contortus, while the negative control group remained unvaccinated and unchallenged. At the end of the experiment on the 63rd day, all animals were humanly euthanized. Results: The results showed that the experimental group had significantly higher levels of sera IgG, IgA, and IgE antibodies, as well as increased concentrations of cytokines, such as IL-4, IL-9, IL-17, and TGF-β, compared to the negative control group after immunization. Following the L3 challenge, the experimental group exhibited a 47.5% reduction in mean eggs per gram of feces (EPG) and a 55.7% reduction in worm burden as compared to the positive control group. Conclusions: These findings indicate that the nanovaccine expressing rHcARF1 offers significant protective efficacy against H. contortus infection in goats. The results also suggest the need for more precise optimization of the antigen dose or a reassessment of the vaccination regimen. Additionally, the small sample size limits the statistical rigor and the broader applicability of the findings.

The protozoan pathogen Giardia lamblia is an important worldwide cause of diarrheal disease and malabsorption. Infection is managed with antimicrobials, although drug resistance and treatment failures are a clinical challenge. Prior infection provides significant protection, yet a human vaccine has not been realized. Individual antigens can elicit partial protection in experimental models, but protection is weaker than after prior infection. Here, we developed a multivalent nanovaccine by coating membranes derived from the parasite onto uniform and stable polymeric nanoparticles loaded with a mucosal adjuvant. Intranasal immunization with the nanovaccine induced adaptive immunity and effectively protected mice from G. lamblia infection.

Simple Summary: Canine leishmaniosis is a potentially fatal disease in dogs caused by the Leishmania parasite. Vaccination seems to be the safest, most cost-effective, and long-lasting control strategy. Currently, there is still no vaccine that totally guarantees complete protection against Leishmania infection. Here, we designed and evaluated the effectiveness of a nanovaccine against Leishmania infantum infection in the murine model. This vaccine strategy, consisting of the HisDTC peptide encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles, induced in vaccinated groups a lower parasite load in comparison to the control groups, which was correlated with the induction of a cellular immune response profile against Leishmania infantum measured throughout different cytokines, antibodies titers, and memory T cells. These results provide evidence that the HisDTC peptide encapsulated in polymeric nanoparticles is a potential vaccine strategy against canine leishmaniosis. Canine leishmaniosis (CanL) is a growing health problem for which vaccination is a crucial tool for the control of disease. The successful development of an effective vaccine against this disease relies on eliciting a robust and enduring T-cell immune response involving the activation of CD4+ Th1 and CD8+ T-cells. This study aimed to evaluate the immunogenicity and prophylactic efficacy of a novel nanovaccine comprising a multi-epitope peptide, known as HisDTC, encapsulated in PLGA nanoparticles against Leishmania infantum infection in the murine model. The encapsulation strategy was designed to enhance antigen loading and sustain release, ensuring prolonged exposure to the immune system. Our results showed that mice immunized with PLGA-encapsulated HisDTC exhibited a significant reduction in the parasite load in the liver and spleen over both short and long-term duration. This reduction was associated with a cellular immune profile marked by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ, and the generation of memory T cells. In conclusion, the current study establishes that PLGA-encapsulated HisDTC can promote effective and long-lasting T-cell responses against L. infantum in the murine model. These findings underscore the potential utility of multi-epitope vaccines, in conjunction with appropriate delivery systems, as an alternative strategy for CanL control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute zoonosis causes significant economic losses. Vaccines able to stimulate efficient protective immune responses are urgently needed. In this study, Escherichia coli -derived recombinant VP1 of serotype A and O FMD virus (FMDV) was conjugated to thermostable scaffold lumazine synthase (LS) or Quasibacillus thermotolerans encapsulin (QtEnc) using a robust plug-and-display SpyTag/SpyCatcher system to generate multimeric nanovaccines. These nanovaccines induced highly potent antibody responses in vaccinated mice. On day 14 after the first immunisation, antibody titres were approximately 100 times higher than those of monomer antigens. Both vaccines induced high and long-term IgG antibody production. Moreover, the QtEnc-VP1 nanovaccine induced higher antibody titres than the LS-VP1 nanovaccine. The nanovaccines also induced Th1-biased immune responses and higher levels of neutralising antibodies. These data indicated that FMDV nanovaccines generated by conjugating VP1 with a thermostable scaffold are highly immunogenic and ideal candidates for FMDV control in low-resource areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Helicobacter pylori (H. Pylori), is an established causative factor for the development of gastric cancer and the induction of persistent stomach infections that may lead to peptic ulcers. In recent decades, several endeavours have been undertaken to develop a vaccine for H. pylori, although none have advanced to the clinical phase. The development of a successful H. pylori vaccine is hindered by particular challenges, such as the absence of secure mucosal vaccines to enhance local immune responses, the absence of identified antigens that are effective in vaccinations, and the absence of recognized indicators of protection. Methods: The DNA vaccine was chemically cloned, and the cloning was verified using PCR and restriction enzyme digestion. The efficacy of the vaccination was investigated. The immunogenicity and immune-protective efficacy of the vaccination were assessed in BALB/c mice. This study demonstrated that administering a preventive Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH Nanovaccine directly into the stomach effectively triggered a robust immune response to protect against H. pylori infection in mice. Results: The level of immune protection achieved with this nano vaccine was similar to that observed when using the widely accepted formalin-killed H. pylori Hel 305 as a positive control. The Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH Nanovaccine composition elicited significant mucosal and systemic antigen-specific antibody responses and strong intestinal and systemic Th1 responses. Moreover, the activation of IL-17R signaling is necessary for the defensive Th1 immune responses in the intestines triggered by Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH. Conclusion: Alginate/pCI-neo-UreH is a potential Nanovaccine for use in an oral vaccine versus H. pylori infection, according to our findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective(s): Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the critical multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. Vaccination could offer dual benefits by preventing sepsis caused by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and curtailing the rise and selection of antimicrobial resistance due to excessive antibiotic use. With this in mind, we designed a vaccine candidate made of gold nanoparticles conjugated to pilin IV protein. Pilin IV protein is an important virulence factor in the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa infections. Materials and Methods: Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were synthesized. The Gold nanoparticles were conjugated to the recombinant protein pilin IV. The recombinant protein pilin IV was emulsied in Montanide ISA 266's adjuvant and was administered to BALB/c mice model via subcutaneous injection. The studied groups included recombinant protein with gold nanoparticles, recombinant protein with Montanide ISA 266's adjuvant, and the control group. After blood sampling at the appropriate time points, ELISA test was performed on the serum of the mice groups. Resuls: The results showed that the two studied groups could stimulate the mouse's immune system. Both IgG antibody subclasses were stimulated. Conclusion: This compound can be a new candidate for recombinant vaccine design against P. aeruginosa as a dexterous pathogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world is grappling with the ongoing crisis of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a global pandemic that continues to have a detrimental impact on public health and economies worldwide. The virus's relentless mutation has led to more transmissible, immune-evasive strains, thereby escalating the incidence of reinfection. This underscores the urgent need for highly effective and safe countermeasures against SARS-CoV-2 and its evolving variants. In the current context, nanomedicine presents an innovative and promising alternative to mitigate the impacts of this pandemic wave. It does so by harnessing the structural and functional properties at a nanoscale in a straightforward and adaptable manner. This review emphasizes the most recent progress in the development of nanovaccines, nanodecoys, and nanodisinfectants to tackle SARS-CoV-2 and its variants. Notably, the insights gained and strategies implemented in managing the ongoing pandemic may also offer invaluable guidance for the development of potent nanomedicines to combat future pandemics. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In all living organisms, ferritins are a group of proteins important for maintaining iron homeostasis. Increasing amount of studies has shown that recombinant ferritins can be widely used in multimodal nanomedicine, especially for anticancer treatment and vaccination. Recombinant particles prepared by fusing viral proteins and ferritin subunits produce a better immune response and higher antibody titres. Moreover, actively-targeted ferritin nanoparticles can recognise receptors and deliver natural or chemical drugs specifically to the tumour tissue. In addition, ferritin-linked or loaded with contrast agents or fluorescent dyes can be used as multimodal particles useful cancer theranostics. In this review, we fully summarised the unitisation of recombinant ferritins in multimodal nanomedicine. The research progress of using recombinant ferritins as nanovaccines, nanozymes, and bioengineered nanocarriers for targeted therapy and bioimaging is emphasised. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Cancer therapeutic vaccine can induce antigen-specific immune response, which has shown great potential in cancer immunotherapy. As the key factor of vaccine, antigen plays a central role in eliciting antitumor immunity. However, the insufficient antigen delivery and low efficiency of antigen presentation by dendritic cells (DCs) have greatly restricted the therapeutic efficiency of vaccine. Here we developed a kind of DC hybrid zinc phosphate nanoparticles to co-deliver antigenic peptide and photosensitive melanin. Owing to the chelating ability of Zn2+, the nanoparticles can co-encapsulate antigenic peptide and melanin with high efficiency. The nanovaccine showed good physiological stability with the hydration particle size was approximately 30 nm, and zeta potential was around − 10 mV. The nanovaccine showed homologous targeting effect to DCs in vivo and in vitro, efficiently delivering antigen to DCs. Meanwhile, the nanovaccine could effectively reflux to the tumor-draining lymph nodes. When combined with near-infrared irradiation, the nanovaccine induced effective mild heat in vitro and in vivo to promote antigen presentation. After administrating to MC38 tumor-bearing mice, the hybrid nanovaccine effectively promoted the maturation of DCs, the expansion of cytotoxic T lymphocytes and helper T cells, and the secretion of immunostimulatory cytokines, thereby significantly inhibiting tumor growth. Graphical Abstract

Abstract Vaccination programmes provide a safe, effective and cost‐efficient strategy for maintaining population health. In veterinary medicine, vaccination not only reduces disease within animal populations but also serves to enhance public health by targeting zoonoses. Nevertheless, for many pathogens, an effective vaccine remains elusive. Recently, nanovaccines have proved to be successful for various infectious and non‐infectious diseases of animals. These novel technologies, such as virus‐like particles, self‐assembling proteins, polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes and virosomes, offer great potential for solving many of the vaccine production challenges. Their benefits include low immunotoxicity, antigen stability, enhanced immunogenicity, flexibility sustained release and the ability to evoke both humoral and cellular immune responses. Nanovaccines are more efficient than traditional vaccines due to ease of control and plasticity in their physio‐chemical properties. They use a highly targeted immunological approach which can provide strong and long‐lasting immunity. This article reviews the currently available nanovaccine technology and considers its utility for both infectious diseases and non‐infectious diseases such as auto‐immunity and cancer. Future research opportunities and application challenges from bench to clinical usage are also discussed.

Vaccination is a modality that has been widely explored for the treatment of various diseases. To increase the potency of vaccine formulations, immunostimulatory adjuvants have been regularly exploited, and the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway has recently emerged as a remarkable therapeutic target. STING is an endogenous protein on the endoplasmic reticulum that is a downstream sensor to cytosolic DNA. Upon activation, STING initiates a series of intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately generate potent type I interferon-mediated immune responses. Both natural and synthetic agonists have been used to stimulate the STING pathway, but they are usually administered locally due to low bioavailability, instability, and difficulty in bypassing the plasma membrane. With excellent pharmacokinetic profiles and versatility, nanocarriers can address many of these challenges and broaden the application of STING vaccines. Along these lines, STING-inducing nanovaccines are being developed to address a wide range of diseases. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in STING nanovaccines for anticancer, antiviral, and antibacterial applications.

Ding P, Jin Q, Chen X, et al. Int J Nanomedicine. 2019;14:7533-7548. At the author’s request, we, the Editor and Publisher of the journal International Journal of Nanomedicine have retracted the following article. During a recent review of the article, the authors identified an error in the use of the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images for Figure 2A, which could potentially confuse readers. After discussing this issue with the editorial team and providing the original data, the authors agreed that the potential confusion could not be adequately addressed through simple correction. Although the results of TEM were independent of the in vivo and in vitro experiments and did not affect the effectiveness of the nanovaccines in the study, they could have compromised the accuracy and reliability of the findings. The authors apologize for the errors in the article and appreciate the readership’s understanding in this matter. However, the authors remain confident in the results and conclusions of this study and with the original material well preserved, hope to submit a revised version of the article for republication following reevaluation. The journal has acknowledged this. In the meantime, in the interest of upholding research integrity and ensuring the trustworthiness of the scientific record, the authors believe that it is necessary to retract the article. We, the Editor and Publisher, understand and agreed with this decision. We have been informed in our decision-making by our editorial policies and COPE guidelines. The retracted article will remain online to maintain the scholarly record, but it will be digitally watermarked on each page as “Retracted”.

Vaccination has made an enormous contribution to global health. Treatment resistance for infectious diseases is growing quickly, and chemotherapeutic toxicity in cancer means that vaccines must be made right away to save humanity. But subunit vaccinations alone don’t give enough strong and long-lasting protection against infections that can kill. Nanoparticle (NP)-based delivery vehicles, such as dendrimers, liposomes, micelles, virosomes, nanogels, and microemulsions, offer interesting ways to get around the problems with traditional vaccine adjuvants. The nanovaccines (50–250 nm in size) are most efficient in terms of tissue targeting, staying in the bloodstream for a long time. Nanovaccines can improve antigen presentation, targeted delivery, stimulation of the body’s innate immune system, and a strong T-cell response without putting people at risk. This can help fight infectious diseases and cancers. Also, nanovaccines can be very helpful for making cancer treatments that use immunotherapy. So, this review highlights the various types of NPs used in the techniques that have worked in the new paradigm in viral vaccinology for infectious diseases. It gives a full rundown of the current NP-based vaccines, their potential as adjuvants, and the ways they can be delivered to cells. In the future, the best nanovaccines will try to be more logically designed, have more antigens in them, be fully functionalized, and be given to the right people.

Abstract Background Influenza A virus (IAV) causes respiratory disease in pigs and is a major concern for public health. Vaccination of pigs is the most successful measure to mitigate the impact of the disease in the herds. Influenza-based virosome is an effective immunomodulating carrier that replicates the natural antigen presentation pathway and has tolerability profile due to their purity and biocompatibility. Methods This study aimed to develop a polyvalent virosome influenza vaccine containing the hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins derived from the swine IAVs (swIAVs) H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 subtypes, and to investigate its effectiveness in mice as a potential vaccine for swine. Mice were immunized with two vaccine doses (1 and 15 days), intramuscularly and intranasally. At 21 days and eight months later after the second vaccine dose, mice were euthanized. The humoral and cellular immune responses in mice vaccinated intranasally or intramuscularly with a polyvalent influenza virosomal vaccine were investigated. Results Only intramuscular vaccination induced high hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titers. Seroconversion and seroprotection (> 4-fold rise in HI antibody titers, reaching a titer of ≥ 1:40) were achieved in 80% of mice (intramuscularly vaccinated group) at 21 days after booster immunization. Virus-neutralizing antibody titers against IAV were detected at 8 months after vaccination, indicating long-lasting immunity. Overall, mice immunized with the virosome displayed greater ability for B, effector-T and memory-T cells from the spleen to respond to H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 antigens. Conclusions All findings showed an efficient immune response against IAVs in mice vaccinated with a polyvalent virosome-based influenza vaccine.

Introduction: The development of innovative anti-COVID-19 vaccines is a need to ensure the population’s immunity worldwide, with broad protection against variants of concern and low cost as the main goals. Gold nanocarriers are potential entities that could aid in the development of innovative vaccines having thermal stability, high immunogenicity, and safety as the main attributes. Moreover, this approach could lead to adjuvant-free formulations, which will reduce the costs of vaccines.Methods: In this study, five peptides (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5) corresponding to linear epitopes of the SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein were chemisorbed on gold nanoparticles (AuNP) of 20 nm, prefunctionalized with heterobifunctional polyethylene glycol, by using glutaraldehyde as crosslinker to generate nanovaccine prototypes.Results and discussion: The surface modification was confirmed by DLS with an increase of 31.7 ± 1.8 nm in the hydrodynamic diameter and an average ζ potential of −8.3 ± 2.2 mV in PBS (as excipient). The coupling concentration achieved was 23.7 ± 7.1 μg of peptide per mg AuNP. These AuNP-based conjugates showed no inherent toxicity in assays performed with HEK293T cells, in which a 100–1,000 μg/mL concentration range only led to a temporary decrease of up to 30% in cell viability after 48 h of treatment with restoration by 72 h. The immunogenicity of the conjugates produced was assessed in test mice subjected to three subcutaneous doses at 2-week intervals. Significant levels of IgM against each target peptide were observed at an early stage of the immunization scheme in all groups, reaching maximum levels after the second dose, whereas the IgG response increased after the third dose. The AuNP-P2, AuNP-P3, and AuNP-P5 conjugates induced the highest levels of IgG antibodies, lasting for at least 2 months after the last boost, with a predominance of the IgG1 subclass. Although the magnitude of the response induced by the gold conjugates was comparable to that with alum as adjuvant, these nanoconjugates induced a longer response. Our data support the use of AuNP as carriers in innovative vaccines against SARS-CoV-2.

Cancer vaccines hold considerable promise for the immunotherapy of solid tumors. Nanomedicine offers several strategies for enhancing vaccine effectiveness. In particular, molecular or (sub) cellular vaccines can be delivered to the target lymphoid tissues and cells by nanocarriers and nanoplatforms to increase the potency and durability of antitumor immunity and minimize negative side effects. Nanovaccines use nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers and/or adjuvants, offering the advantages of optimal nanoscale size, high stability, ample antigen loading, high immunogenicity, tunable antigen presentation, increased retention in lymph nodes, and immunity promotion. To induce antitumor immunity, cancer vaccines rely on tumor antigens, which are administered in the form of entire cells, peptides, nucleic acids, extracellular vesicles (EVs), or cell membrane–encapsulated NPs. Ideal cancer vaccines stimulate both humoral and cellular immunity while overcoming tumor-induced immune suppression. Herein, we review the key properties of nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy and highlight the recent advances in their development based on the structure and composition of various (including synthetic and semi (biogenic) nanocarriers. Moreover, we discuss tumor cell–derived vaccines (including those based on whole-tumor-cell components, EVs, cell membrane–encapsulated NPs, and hybrid membrane–coated NPs), nanovaccine action mechanisms, and the challenges of immunocancer therapy and their translation to clinical applications.

ABSTRACTBrucellosis, caused by Brucella, is a severe zoonosis, and the current Brucella live attenuated vaccine cannot be used in humans due to major safety risks. Although polysaccharide antigens can be used to prepare the Brucella vaccine, their lower immunogenicity limits them from producing efficient and broad protection. In this study, we produced a high-performance bioconjugate nanovaccine against different species of Brucella by introducing a self-assembly nanoparticle platform and an O-linked glycosylation system into Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:9, which has an O-polysaccharide composed of the same unit as Brucella. After successfully preparing the vaccine and confirming its stability, we subsequently demonstrated the safety of the vaccine in mice by high-dose immunization. Then, by a series of mouse experiments, we found that the nanovaccine greatly promoted antibody responses. In particular, the increase of IgG2a was more obvious than that of IgG1. Most importantly, this nanovaccine could provide cross-protection against B. abortus, B. melitensis, and B. suis strains by lethal dose challenged models, and could improve the clearance of B. melitensis, the most common pathogenic species in human brucellosis, by non-lethal dose infection. Overall, for the first time, we biocoupled polysaccharide antigens with nano carriers to prepare a Brucella vaccine, which showed pronounced and extensive protective effects in mice. Thus, we provided a potential candidate vaccine and a new direction for Brucella vaccine design.