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[Display omitted] Biogenic, sustainable two-dimensional architectures, such as films and nanopapers, have garnered considerable interest because of their low carbon footprint, biodegradability, advanced optical/mechanical characteristics, and diverse potential applications. Here, bio-based nanopapers with tailored characteristics were engineered by the electrostatic complexation of oppositely charged colloidal phosphorylated cellulose nanofibers (P-CNFs) and deacetylated chitin nanocrystals (ChNCs). The electrostatic interaction between anionic P-CNFs and cationic ChNCs enhanced the stretchability and water stability of the nanopapers. Correspondingly, they exhibited a wet tensile strength of 17.7 MPa after 24 h of water immersion. Furthermore, the nanopapers exhibited good thermal stability and excellent self-extinguishing behavior, triggered by both phosphorous and nitrogen. These features make the nanopapers sustainable and promising structures for application in advanced fields, such as optoelectronics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to prepare a degradable bacteriostatic aerogel pad using nanocellulose (CNC) as a matrix material, chitosan (CTS) as cross-linking agent, and graphene oxide (GO) as a reinforcement phase using a freeze-drying technique to absorb pork exudate and extend pork's shelf life. With an increase in GO concentration, the network structure in CNC/CTS/GO aerogel was more uniform, and the mechanical properties, water adsorption capacity, and bacterial inhibition were gradually enhanced. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that adding of GO affected the chemical structure and thermal stability of the aerogels. Based upon effects of GO concentration on the structure and properties of the CNC/CTS/GO aerogel, 0.4 wt% of GO was selected to prepare aerogels for use as packaging pads for fresh pork. At 4 °C, the aerogel pads in of the GO-0.4 group could absorb the juices released throughout the pork storage process, delay pork color deterioration, and inhibit microorganism growth as well as decrease in pH and the total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content, thus prolonging the fresh pork's shelf life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

E-mobility systems require the provision of efficient, lightweight and durable battery solutions. Here, novel solutions for efficient energy storage are needed, which aim at combining the performance of supercapacitors with structural capabilities realized by the use of functional carbon fibers. To achieve functional carbon fibers, different additives are used to modify carbon fibers starting with the precursor. Polyacrylonitrile blends with nanocellulose, graphene or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon have been spun using solvent wet spinning. Different ratios of post-drawing were performed to investigate the influence on the mechanical properties of the precursor fibers. They were characterized by tensile tests and morphological investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microbial nanotechnology is currently helping to address human needs in many areas of life. One of these fields is the production of cellulose nanomaterials, which are used in many medical, agricultural, environmental and industrial applications. In this study, the novel strain Aspergillus nidulans optical density 1 (OD1) was isolated as cellulolytic fungus that has the ability to convert cellulose into nanocellulose through partial degradation under optimized conditions. The optimization conditions include incubation of fungal pellets with the microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) for 4 h at pH 6 with addition of 1 mM of Zn and 2 mM of Mn ions. Furthermore, feedback inhibition for exocellulase and B-glucosidase activity was performed to the concentrated cellulases of A. nidulans in order to prevent the complete degradation of cellulose, hence increasing nanocellulose yield. The better results of enzyme feedback inhibition were obtained due to addition of 1% of cellobiose and 2% glucose for the enzyme/MCC mixture for 4 h. The concentrated A. nidulans cellulases were applied to produce nanocellulose from cotton fibers as well as rice straw as common agricultural cellulosic materials and wastes. According to Transmission electron microscope (TEM) and particle size distribution, the average particle sizes of nanocellulose were (9–20) nm and (2–17) nm for cotton fibers and rice straw wastes, respectively. The obtained results revealed that nanocellulose can be biosynthesized using fungal cellulases produced under optimized conditions using cellulosic materials available as agricultural wastes. Further investigation of the produced cellulose nanomaterials can be conducted to demonstrate its compatibility with various medical, environmental, and industrial applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rice straw is an abundant agricultural waste, especially in Asian countries, of which a large amount is still open burnt. This leads to the emission of greenhouse gases (CH4, N2O, etc.) causing huge environmental impacts and is a waste of a cellulose, lignin, and silica source, which are highly valuable compounds. In this work, nanocellulose (CNC) was produced from rice straw using chemical method, together with waste stream utilization. The acid waste from the hydrolysis and the black liquor from cellulose isolation were used to recover a hybrid material of lignin and silica (LS), which was then applied to remove methylene blue from water. CNC was prepared using acid hydrolysis presented as rod-like particles with a crystallinity of 85% and a diameter of 20–30 nm in width and 200–400 nm in length, which was of high quality and suitable for further applications. The LS hybrid performed well in adsorbing methylene blue in aqueous solution, with the trapping capacity of 68 mg/g. Subsequently, a pilot-scale integrated process to produce CNC and LS hybrid was proposed to reduce the chemical and water usage in treating waste stream and move towards the "zero-waste" concept and circular economy principle. The process is a possible solution for facile and feasible large-scale transformation of rice straw into value-added products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose (NC) has become a tremendous topic in recent years due to its versatility and renewability properties. Taking account of highly underutilized agro-waste, banana peel (BP) showed potential as a competent raw material for NC. NCs were synthesized through a one-pot hydrolysis system. Initially, the Taguchi orthogonal array was carried out to determine the effect of hydrolysis parameters (H2SO4%, reaction time, and temperature) on the properties (crystallinity, morphology, size, functional group and surface charge) of NC. In addition, to obtain the optimized hydrolysis condition to obtain the highest NC yield, minimum size and maximum surface charge. NC was successfully obtained with a crystallinity index of 21.46%, a particle size of 152.6 nm, and a zeta potential of -16.9 mV. This was achieved using 40% H2SO4 concentration, a reaction time of 106.316 min, and a temperature of 77.02 °C. The surface morphology and functional group present in the synthesized NC were comparable with the commercially available NC, thus justifying BP to be a good source for NC production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, it is examined how nanocellulose has been used in drug release so far. In the thinning, information is given briefly on controlled drug release and its importance, nanomaterials in controlled release, structure, and production of nanocellulose. Then, examples of the use of nanocellulose in drug release are given. The disadvantage of still having a slightly high production cost has been identified. However, it is understood that it is a very suitable material for drug release due to its abundance in nature, easy availability, and biocompatibility. Therefore, at the end of the study, it is recommended that nanocellulose of different sizes would be very useful for producing nanocellulose in different sizes and its applications in drug release and nanocellulose with other functional groups for drug release. In this respect, it is predicted that studies on nanocellulose as a natural product in terms of drug release will accelerate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, research all over the world is being carried out to develop eco‐friendly supercapacitors (SCs) using biopolymeric materials like proteins or polysaccharides. These polymers offer these innovative energy storage devices' sustainability and recyclability, flexibility, lightweight, and steady cycling performance—all crucial for utilizations involving wearable electronics and others. Given its abundance and extensive recycling behavior, cellulose is one of the most sustainable natural polymers requiring special attention. The paper discusses the various types of cellulose‐based materials (CBMs), including nanocellulose, cellulose derivatives, and composites, as well as their synthesis methods and electrochemical properties. The review also highlights the performance of CBMs in SC applications, including their capacitance, cycling stability, and rate capability, along with recent advances in modifying the materials, such as surface modification and hybrid materials. Finally, the proposed topic is concluded with the current challenges and future prospects of CBMs for SC applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since cellulose is the most common biopolymer in the world, there has been a lot of interest in its nanoscale version called nanocellulose due to the growing demand for sustainable products. To validate nanocellulose as a key component in the shift to a bio‐based economy, this review provides a thorough and critical assessment of the valorization of cellulose into nanocellulose, highlighting its unique properties, cutting‐edge extraction methods, surface modifications, and multiple applications. The study thoroughly compares nanocellulose with other natural and synthetic polymers, in contrast to earlier research, emphasizing the latter's inferior mechanical qualities, biocompatibility, and adaptability. In addition, we discuss recent developments in surface modification and extraction techniques that improve the performance of nanocellulose in high‐impact applications like medication administration, electronics, packaging, and environmental remediation. This analysis demonstrates the economic and sustainability potential of nanocellulose and suggests strategic options for future research by summarizing recent advances and identifying research gaps. Our study shows that turning cellulose into nanocellulose is valuable not just as a research project but also as a critical first step in creating long‐lasting materials to deal with the pressing issues of the twenty‐first century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To cope with the increasingly serious electromagnetic pollution, the demand for electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding materials with low electromagnetic wave reflection ability has become urgent. Controlling electrical components, magnetic components, and designing the EMI material structure can effectively improve electromagnetic shielding performance, but this remains a significant challenge. Besides, extreme cold weather conditions also do considerable potential damage to the normal work of outdoor electronic equipment. Integrated light‐to‐heat conversion capability on electromagnetic shielding materials can further improve the stability and reliability of the equipment. Herein, the novel bilayer aerogels composed of zeolitic imidazolate frameworks derived hollow CoNi carbon nanocage/MXene Ti3C2Tx/nanocellulose (BZMN) are prepared by a two‐step freezing method. BZMN aerogels exhibit good EMI shielding effectiveness (SE) with low reflection coefficient (R coefficients): 35.1 dB (R coefficient = 0.28) and 21.2 dB (R coefficient = 0.25). The unique structures of bilayer aerogels demonstrate the ability to absorb more electromagnetic waves through interfacial polarization and multiple scattering. The green shielding index (gs) of BZMN aerogels can reach 2.88. Moreover, BZMN aerogels show remarkable and unique light‐to‐heat conversion performance on different surfaces. Under 2.0 sun intensity, temperatures can reach 109.3 °C in the upper layer and 102.3 °C in the lower layer. Under 0.8 W cm−2 near‐infrared (NIR) laser intensity, the temperatures can rise to 234.1 °C in the upper layer and 167.4 °C in the lower layer. In addition, the size and shape of BZMN aerogels can be customized according to the mold. These features present BZMN aerogels as advanced potential low reflection EMI shielding device candidates, useful for future telecommunication and electronic equipment protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Developing advanced textiles and fabrics that offer protection against aerosolised chemical and biological hazards is of tremendous interest and is indispensable to the safety of the military personnel. Unfortunately, the extensive protection offered by protective clothing is often accompanied by a reduction in moisture vapour permeability, which increases physiological burden on the user (i.e., transport of sweat away from the body). This study shows that an enhancement in aerosol particulate filtration of a woven textile fabric can be achieved without impeding its water vapour transmission rate through the application of an ultra‐low grammage nanocellulose coating using a simple papermaking approach. Aerosol particulate filtration is realised in the nanocellulose coating through a size‐exclusion mechanism and the filtration efficiency doubled even at a nanocellulose grammage of 0.25 g m−2. As nanocellulose is hygroscopic, water vapour transmission rate remained unchanged compared to the uncoated woven fabric, regardless of the types of nanocellulose coating applied. The work also reports the mechanical robustness of the nanocellulose network fabricated, which is typically the concern in low‐grammage nanofibrous coating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose is the most abundant and renewable biopolymers on earth. The hydrophilic nature of cellulose endows cellulosic materials with good compatibility with polar matrices, but it also leads to their poor dispersion in non-polar matrices. Regulating the surface hydrophobicity of cellulosic materials via surface esterification can greatly extend their applications. However, the existing surface esterification methods for cellulosic materials are time-consuming and costly, which makes them less attractive for practical application. Here we found that when vinyl esters were used as esterifying agents, various alkalis can be used to catalyze the ultrafast surface esterification of cellulose materials in aqueous media at room temperature within seconds or minutes, which is highly attractive for the surface esterification of nanocellulose in suspension state. Surface acetylated cellulose nanofibers (ACNF) and surface acetylated cellulose nanocrystals (ACNC) with acetyl group content (Ac%) up to 10.7% and 6.5%, respectively, were successfully prepared within 5 min in aqueous diethylamine solution. Additionally, this method can also be used to achieve the rapid acetylation of phenol hydroxy group in aqueous media. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose is widely distributed in higher plants and constitutes the most abundant natural biopolymer on Earth. Nanocellulose is a cellulose material with nanoscale dimensions, obtained through special processing and treatment. Up to now, nanocellulose has been widely investigated as a biosorbent to absorb various types of pollutants in wastewater due to its excellent properties, such as large specific surface area, antifouling behaviour, high aspect ratio, high heat resistance, excellent mechanical properties, biodegradability and biocompatibility. In addition, nanocellulose can be rationally structured by different recombination techniques such as membranes, sponges, aerogels, hydrogels and microspheres and provide specialised functionality for the adsorption of various types of pollutants from wastewater. This review introduces the basic properties, classification and modification methods of nanocellulose; discusses the preparation strategies of nanocellulose-based recombinant materials (including vacuum/pressurised filtration, sol–gel and electrospinning); reviews research progress in the adsorption of organic dyes and heavy metal Cr, as well as the separation of oil/water using nanocellulose-based recombinant materials; and explores the potential of nanocellulose in treating tannery wastewater. Finally, the problems faced by nanocellulose-based recombinant materials and future prospects are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose has prompted extensive exploration of its applications in advanced functional materials, especially humidity-responsive materials. However, the sunflower pith (SP), a unique agricultural by-product with high cellulose and pectin content, is always ignored and wasted. This work applied sulfuric acid hydrolysis and sonication to sunflower pith to obtain nanocellulose and construct film materials with humidity-responsive properties. The SP nanoparticle (SP-NP) suspension could form a transparent film with stacked layers of laminated structure. Due to the tightly layered structure and expansion confinement effect, when humidity increases, the SP-NP film responds rapidly in just 0.5 s and completes a full flipping cycle in 4 s, demonstrating its excellent humidity-responsive capability. After removing hemicellulose and lignin, the SP cellulose nanocrystals (SPC-NC) could self-assemble into a chiral nematic structure in the film, displaying various structural colors based on different sonication times. The color of the SPC-NC film dynamically adjusted with changes in ambient humidity, exhibiting both functionality and aesthetics. This research provides a new perspective on the high-value utilization of sunflower pith while establishing a practical foundation for developing novel responsive cellulose-based materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This study provides a comprehensive analysis of the effects of incorporating low levels of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) into an acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) matrix on the properties of ABS composites. Five samples with varying CNF content (0.125%, 0.25%, 0.5%, and 1%) were prepared, alongside a pure ABS sample for comparison. The preparation involved mechanical blending, followed by extrusion and injection molding. Mechanical, thermal, water absorption, surface gloss, and microstructural properties of the composites were characterized. Tensile and three-point bending tests revealed that the addition of CNFs improved both stiffness and strength, with the highest tensile modulus observed in ABS/NC4 (1% CNFs) and the highest flexural strength in ABS/NC1 (0.125% CNFs). Impact resistance, evaluated through Charpy impact testing, showed enhancement up to 0.5% CNF content, beyond which a decline was observed due to increased particle quantity. Thermal properties exhibited negligible changes, with slight variations in glass transition and melting temperatures observed within a narrow range. SEM analysis confirmed a uniform distribution of CNFs, contributing to enhanced crack resistance, although higher CNF content led to increased void formation. Surface gloss measurements indicated smoother material surfaces with higher CNF content. The study concludes that integrating CNFs into ABS composites improves mechanical properties and impact resistance, necessitating careful consideration of CNF content for optimal performance. Further refinement could tailor ABS/CNF composites for specific applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advancements in the utilization of naturally derived nanocellulose and nanochitin/chitosan have opened new avenues for self‐cleaning and purification applications to address environmental challenges. This review highlights the unique structural properties of bio‐based nanofibers, which are typically rich in hydroxyl groups that enhance their functionality in various industrial sectors. Through appropriate chemical modification, they can perform specific functions facilitated by carboxylic acids or amine groups. We explored the mechanisms by which these materials facilitate oil/water separation, ultrafiltration, and self‐cleaning processes, including the incorporation of inorganic nanoparticles, such as TiO2, to improve hydrophilicity and oleophobicity. Furthermore, this review discusses innovative fabrication techniques, such as spray‐assisted layer‐by‐layer assembly, which enhance the performance of nanofiber‐based coatings. We examined the potential of these materials for diverse applications, including food packaging, wastewater treatment, and personal protective equipment, emphasizing their role in promoting sustainable industrial practices. As the global emphasis on eco‐friendly solutions intensifies, continued research and development of nanocellulose and nanochitin is expected to drive significant advancements in materials science, paving the way for greener technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this research was to assess the potential of a Pickering emulsion based on lycopene extracted from guava by sunflower oil-water and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) isolated from banana residues as a novel ingredient for a French-style salad dressing. The aim was to determine the impact of this emulsion on the stability and rheological properties of the dressing as well as ascertain the presence of lycopene in the final product. The particle size distribution, rheological properties, and emulsion stability of the Pickering emulsion and salad dressing were evaluated. The sample exhibiting the optimal stability condition contained 0.5 wt.% of CNFs (EPI0.5). In order to prepare the French salad dressing based on this Pickering emulsion, three concentrations of vinegar were analyzed. All samples contained white salt and sugar. The findings suggest that alterations in emulsion stability may be influenced by the vinegar content and the presence of salt, particularly during the storage period, which also affects the concentration of lycopene. Notwithstanding these findings, the untrained panelists expressed a favorable opinion and acceptance of the dressings, indicating that the product could serve as an alternative means of enriching food through the incorporation of beneficial substances such as lycopene. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study involved producing aerogels using activated carbon (AC) and nanocellulose (NC). Two distinct structured composites, AC composite aerogel (ACCA) and NC composite aerogel (NCCA), were developed by separately mixing AC and NC with identical proportions of cross-linked biopolymers: hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), methylcellulose (MC), and chitosan (C). These aerogels were evaluated for their capability to adsorb ethylene gas through batch experiments, while the physical and chemical characteristics were thoroughly examined to determine their feasibility of removing ethylene. The resulting ACCA and NCCA aerogels exhibited low densities of 0.094 g cm−3 and 0.077 g cm−3, respectively, coupled with high porosity ranging between 95 and 96%. During the ethylene adsorption test, NCCA exhibited superior ethylene removal rates (~14.88–16.77 mL kg−1) compared to ACCA (~13.57–14.97 mL kg−1). Specifically, NCCA achieved a removal efficiency of 83.86% compared to 74.64% for ACCA. Kinetic model fitting yielded high R2 values ranging from 0.97 to 0.98 with the Lagergren kinetic model. These findings suggest the potential of composite aerogels to be incorporated into food packaging materials for dynamic ethylene capture, independent of environmental conditions, thereby providing promising routes for further development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The biosynthesis of bacterial cellulose (BC) is significantly influenced by the type of carbon source available in the growth medium, which in turn dictates the material's final properties. This study systematically investigates the effects of five carbon sources—raffinose (C18H32O16), sucrose (C12H22O11), glucose (C6H12O6), arabinose (C5H10O5), and glycerol (C3H8O3)—on BC production by Komagataeibacter hansenii. The varying molecular weights and structural characteristics of these carbon sources provide a framework for examining their influence on BC yield, fiber morphology, and network properties. BC production was monitored through daily measurements of optical density and pH levels in the fermentation media from day 1 to day 14, providing valuable insights into bacterial growth kinetics and cellulose synthesis rates. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to elucidate fibril diameter and pore size distribution. Wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) provided a detailed assessment of crystallinity. Selected BC pellicles were further processed via freeze-drying to produce a foam-like material that maximally preserves the natural three-dimensional structure of BC, facilitating the incorporation and release of lidocaine hydrochloride (5%), a widely used local anesthetic. The lidocaine-loaded BC foams exhibited a sustained and controlled release profile over 14 days in simulated body fluid, highlighting the importance of the role of carbon source selection in shaping the BC network architecture and its impact on drug release profile. These results highlight the versatility and sustainability of BC as a platform for wound healing and drug delivery applications. The tunable properties of BC networks provide opportunities for optimizing therapeutic delivery and improving wound care outcomes, positioning BC as an effective material for enhanced wound management strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aimed to design a novel nanocatalyst, 1,3-Benzothiazole-2,5-diamine supported on nanocellulose (BTDA@CNC), which was characterized using various analytical techniques such as FT-IR, XRD, TGA, SEM, TEM, and CHN. The nanocatalyst was utilized for the synthesis of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives through a simple and efficient three-component reaction between aldehyde derivatives, semicarbazide, and ethanol. The protocol offered advantages such as a simple procedure, high yields, short reaction time, and an environmentally benign method. The nanocatalyst could be readily separated by filter and reused without significant loss of its catalytic efficiency. The synthesized compounds showed moderate activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and the antifungal properties of the candida albicans synthesized derivatives were also investigated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interest in bio-based polymer composites is brought about by the quest for sustainable environmentally friendly materials due to the rapid depletion of petroleum resources and the desire to find solutions to environmental pollution because of synthetic composites. The purpose of this work was to study the effect of various treatments on the performance and potential use of hybrid barkcloth-banana fiber-reinforced polyester resin biocomposites particularly for interior automotive applications. Two categories of biocomposites were prepared: (1) untreated banana fibers and barkcloth, denoted by A1, B1, C1, D1, and (2) 5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treated banana fibers and barkcloth with nano-cellulose denoted by A, B, C, and D. Banana fibers were soaked in the alkali solution for 12 h, nanocellulose was extracted from the barkcloth using the acid hydrolysis method and applied to the barkcloth fabrics by the pad-dry-cure method with a concentration of 1% nanocellulose. The treated barkcloth had better bonding capacity with the resin and was thermally stable than the untreated barkcloth. In contrast, the alkali treatment of banana fibers led to fiber degradation, making them brittle and consequently reducing their tensile and bending strength. The mechanical properties of both composites showed that sample D1 had the best tensile and flexural strength attributed to the fact that it was based on the untreated banana fibers as opposed to the degraded alkali-treated banana fibers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose has become a vital material with excellent and crucial properties in the field of nanotechnology and advanced materials science. Plant-based traditional Chinese medicines are mostly plant rhizomes, which contain a large amount of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In this study, carboxylated cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) were prepared from traditional Chinese medicine residues (CMR) by sequential periodate-chlorite oxidation without mechanical treatment. The obtained nanocelluloses were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and X-ray diffractometry (XRD); the carboxyl content and specific surface area were also measured, simultaneously. XRD results revealed that the crystallinity index decreased after sequential oxidation; however, the cellulose I structure was maintained. From the morphology analysis, the average length and width of CNCs were 139.3 and 10 nm, respectively. From the FTIR analysis, with the particle size decreasing, hydrogen bonds were broken and recombined. TGA results showed that the thermal property was decreased with a reduction of nanocellulose particle size and crystallinity index. This study is the first to refine utilization of traditional Chinese medicine residues as a potential source of cellulose, that is, to prepare nanocellulose efficiently with high carboxyl content which finds its application in nanomaterials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights Polypropylene composites with different contents of zinc‐ammonium salts (3, 5 and 7 wt%) and nanocellulose (1 wt%) after enzymatic bioconversion were characterized by structural, dispersion‐morphological, thermal, antimicrobial and mechanical analysis. It was shown that the use of a newly synthesized salt significantly affected the formation of the supermolecular structure of the polymer matrix and increased the nucleation activity, thermostability and flexibility of the composite materials. Moreover, the addition of the inorganic filler allowed to obtain composites with very good antimicrobial properties against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Candida albicans. An interesting relationship between the degree of filler dispersion in the polymer matrix and the formation of polymorphic varieties was elucidated in the study, which contributes to the improvement of final performance characteristics of composite materials. It is noteworthy that a hybrid filler in the form of nanometric cellulose and a biocidal additive containing zinc‐ammonium complex salt was used for the first time. Research has shown that such polymer composites can find application during the manufacture of smart packaging materials with enhanced barrier properties against oxygen and water vapor as well as improved biocidal characteristics, which will notably extend food storage time. At the same time, the presented process of obtaining the innovative composite materials is an excellent example of sustainable technologies for the design of antimicrobial treatments, while guaranteeing the possibility of further processing of these composite materials through material recycling. Zinc‐ammonium complex with antimicrobial properties was obtained The strength properties and thermal stability of the composites were improved Degree of filler dispersion in polymer affects formation of polymorphic varieties The composites can be applied in the production of smart packaging materials [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights Additive manufacturing for polylactic acid (PLA) reinforced with cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) could unlock fabrication of specialized and user‐specific biomedical devices. However, the process of combining PLA and CNF is challenging and proves complicated with possible irreversible CNF agglomeration and organic solvents leftover, particularly when involving solvent‐casting technique. Direct melt‐blending can mitigate these issues, but there are few reports of a single‐step melting and extrusion process to produce ready‐to‐use 3D printing filaments. This study compares the distribution of CNF fillers within the PLA matrix in PLA/CNF composites made by direct melt‐blending into filaments using a benchtop filament maker, and by solvent‐casting followed by extrusion into filaments. The filaments were 3D‐printed via fused deposition modeling (FDM), followed by tensile testing, morphology, and other characterizations. Uneven filament diameters were observed for the composite filaments prepared via solvent‐casting because of severe agglomeration, resulted in poor printability and tensile properties of filaments and 3D‐printed samples. Direct melt‐blended filament diameters were consistent, resulted in only slight decrease of tensile properties compared to pure PLA, contributing to the highest maximum tensile strength of 3D‐printed sample of 51.47 ± 1.73 MPa at 5% CNF loading. Morphology revealed good integration of CNF into PLA matrix starting at 3% CNF loading. Direct melt‐blending was comparable to the conventional methods, which enables simpler PLA/CNF composite preparation especially for 3D printing. Better dispersibility achieved by direct melt‐blending than by solvent‐casting. PLA/CNF filaments produced via solvent‐casting suffered severe agglomeration. Direct melt‐blended PLA/CNF5% yielded the highest maximum tensile strength. Morphology reveals good CNF‐PLA integration starting at 3% of CNF loading. Worsened agglomeration causing increased number of voids observed at 10% CNF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lithium metal batteries (LMBs) are considered as one type of the most promising next‐generation energy storage devices with high‐energy‐density, and stabilizing the lithium metal anodes (LMAs) to overcome LMBs' safety concerns and performance degradation has attracted extensive attention. Introducing advanced polymer materials into the critical components of LMBs has proven to be an effective and promising approach for stabilizing LMAs toward practical application of LMBs. In addressing the lack of a timely review on the emerging progress of advanced polymer materials in LMBs for stabilizing LMAs, a comprehensive article summarizing the most recent developments of multiscale cellulose materials, including micron cellulose (MC) and nanocellulose (NC), in LMBs is reviewed. First, the basic structures of cellulose, characteristics comparison, and the development history of introducing cellulose into LMBs are presented. Furthermore, the roles of multiscale cellulose materials and functional mechanisms in various components of LMBs for stabilizing LMAs are summarized. A general conclusion and a perspective on the current limitations and future research directions of cellulose‐based stable LMBs are proposed. The aim of this review is not only to summarize the recent progress of multiscale cellulose materials in stabilizing LMAs but also to lighten the pathways for realizing LMBs' practical application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 3D printing technique has recently become more prevalent among researchers for the fabrication of nanocomposites. The low crystallinity of polylactic acid (PLA) leads to the poor mechanical and thermal properties of its 3D-printed products, which restrict their applications in many fields. To overcome the limitations of PLA, the present work aims to develop PLA-based bionanocomposite filaments with varying percentages (1, 3, and 5 wt%) of crystalline nanocellulose (CNC) through a single screw extruder. The filaments will be further utilized for the development of bionanocomposite samples to evaluate their properties. The effect of CNC reinforcement on the chemical structure of the filaments was analyzed by FTIR analysis. XRD analysis revealed that the crystallinity of the filaments was significantly improved due to the nucleating effect of CNC. The maximum crystallinity was observed in the filament containing 1 wt% CNC, which was 26% higher than the pure PLA filament. The thermal and mechanical performance of the filaments was also considerably improved after CNC reinforcement, which was confirmed by DSC-TGA and tensile test analysis. The maximum tensile strength and tensile modulus were observed to be 48.9 MPa and 1700 MPa, respectively, in the filament reinforced with 1 wt% CNC, which was 35.5% and 21.89%, respectively, higher than those of the pure PLA filament. Rheological analysis showed that the complex viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus of the filaments were significantly affected by the reinforcement of CNC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

X-Ray micro-computed tomography (XCT) is used to reveal the micro-structural changes of banana pseudostem nanocellulose bioplastic due to a biodegradation process initiated in a formulated composting media that allowed the growth of aerobic microflora. The bioplastic itself was made of nanocellulose, which was isolated from banana pseudostem using the 2,2,6,6-Tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) mediated oxidation method, and polyethylene glycol (PEG) as plasticiser. XCT provided insights into the 3D structural change of the bioplastic identifying the degradation process at two scales. The results showed that the local thickness and roughness of the bioplastic increased after degradation, while the density of the material decreased. Enlarged voids and tunnels were observed in the material after degradation. The formation of these tunnels is attributed to the popping of internal PEG-containing voids because of the generation of gases, which after forming may further accelerate biodegradation by microbial activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In view of a need for high-performing materials, while also minimizing contributions to plastic pollution, especially ocean micro- or nano- plastic pollution, biodegradable hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) and nanocellulose (CNC) liquid crystal biopolymers have attracted attention as emerging fields. Their structures, phase behaviors, and advanced characterization techniques in terms of synchrotron X-ray and neutron small angle scattering of HPC solutions and CNC suspensions have been systemically studied. Diverse left- and right-hand chiral liquid crystal HPC and CNC photonic elastomer materials are further explored. To achieve their complex structure design and mass-scale manufacturing, soft matter photonic materials via advanced manufacturing techniques are critically considered in this review. The goal is to enable their applications in intelligent coating, photonic fiber, and intelligent packaging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an environmentally friendly and sustainable nanoparticle stabilizer of Pickering emulsions, cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) has attracted attention because of its sustainable and biodegradable characteristics. Despite its distinct amphiphilic character as an ideal nanomaterial to replace traditionally non-sustainable surfactant emulsifiers, its long-term stability and lack of responses from external stimuli [e.g., pH, temperature, and carbon dioxide (CO2)] are the critical issues to be addressed. The solutions for all of these questions in terms of CNCs and its responsive Pickering emulsions are systemically discussed in this review. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resistance of epoxy composite modified with nanocellulose and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) to decay by white rot (Trametes versicolor) and brown rot (Coniophora puteana) fungi was investigated using EN 113 (1996) as the guideline. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of TEOS as a cross-linked agent in epoxy/nanocellulose composite, and its resistance against white rot and brown rot fungi. The epoxy resin was mixed with 10 wt% nanocellulose. The other three sets were prepared the same, but with the addition of 1%, 2%, and 3% TEOS for each set. All types of epoxy composites were air dried in a mold at ambient temperature for seven days followed by oven drying at 80 °C for 30 min. The composites were oven dried at 103 °C, sterilized, and exposed to the fungi at 22 °C for 16 weeks. It was found that the use of 1% to 3% TEOS in the composite reduced the percent weight loss following decay by T. versicolor, but not in the case of C. puteana. Overall, all types of the composite in this study were classified as highly durable and durable against the T. versicolor and C. puteana respectively. The surface and structure of all types of composites were still intact after 16 weeks of exposure period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose (CNF) was obtained from carrots using a combination of chemical treatment, mechanical milling, and ultrasonic treatment. Ultrafast preparation of maleic anhydride esterified nanocellulose was achieved by a hydrated hydrogen ion-driven dissociation, chemical cross-linking strategy based on a "one-pot" reaction method. Esterification modification with maleic anhydride reduced the crystallinity of nanocellulose and enhanced its thermal stability. High-strength drug-carrying hydrogels (MACNF/SA) with different drug loading capacities were prepared using cefixime (CFX) as a drug model and maleic anhydride esterified nanocellulose (MACNF) and sodium alginate (SA) as the main raw materials. The compressive strength of MACNF/SA hydrogels made from MACNF reached a maximum of 80.3 kPa when the mass ratio of CNF to MA was 2.5:12. Rheological property tests showed that the MACNF/SA hydrogels were pseudoplastic fluids with shear thinning. The drug release from the drug-carrying hydrogels followed non-Fickian diffusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, lignocellulosic materials have become regarded as attractive and noteworthy natural resources owing to their renewability, recyclability, easy processability, abundance, biodegradability, and low cost. The developments in nanotechnology have opened new doors in the field of bio-based nanosensor technology, which is utilized in electronics, optical products, communication, automotive, packaging, tissue engineering, biomedical, textile, etc. This paper mainly focuses on the usage of lignocellulosic materials in nanosensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose is considered a promising and sustainable biomaterial, with excellent properties of biorenewability with improved mechanical properties. As a unique natural biopolymer, it has been applied to many different industries, where efficient and environmentally friendly productions are in demand. For the first time, ferns from the class Polypodiopsida were used for the isolation of cellulose fibers, which was performed using a chemo-mechanical method. As chemical treatment plays a crucial role in the isolation of nanocellulose, it affects the efficiency of the extraction process, as well as the properties of the resulting nanocellulose. Therefore, mechanical fibrillation was performed via grinding, while the chemical process consisted of three different treatments: alkali treatment, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis. In three different experiments, each treatment was separately prolonged to investigate the differing properties of isolated nanocellulose. Structural analysis and morphological analysis were investigated by SEM, EDS, FT-IR, and DLS. The thermal stability of cellulose fibers was investigated by TGA/DSC. The morphology of obtained nanocellulose was confirmed via SEM analysis for all samples, with particles ranging from 20 nm up to 600 nm, while the most consistent sizes were observed for NC3, ranging from 20 to 60 nm. FT-IR spectra showed prominent absorption peaks corresponding to cellulose, as well as the absence of absorption peaks, corresponding to lignin and hemicellulose. The EDS confirmed the elemental purity of nanocellulose, while TGA/DSC indicated higher thermal stability of nanocellulose, compared to untreated fern, which started to degrade earlier than nanocellulose. Such characteristics with unique properties make nanocellulose a versatile biomaterial for the industrial production of cellulosic materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nanocellulose is a robust material with a broad spectrum of potential applications. Manufacturing nanocellulose has garnered greater interest recently and is currently the European economy's second-highest priority. It is possible to extract from plants' biomass using various methods, which are divided broadly into various categories. The kind of biomass, the desired qualities of the nanocellulose, and the production size all have a role in selecting the pretreatment and extraction process. Several pretreatment and extraction techniques for nanocellulose from plant biomass are covered in this review, along with the variables that affect method selection. Developing scalable, effective production processes for nanocellulose is crucial for commercializing technologies. The current processes to create nanocellulose are still somewhat inefficient, and industrial scale-up is challenging. Future studies are likely to focus on efficient, scalable techniques for reducing down cell walls from plants and lower-cost nanocellulose synthesis using clean energy sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study deals with the design of modern environmentally friendly and non-toxic flame retardants based on expandable graphite 25 K + 180 (EG) modified by cellulose ethers (Lovose TS 20, Tylose MH 300, Klucel H) and nanocellulose (CNC) that are biocompatible with wood and, therefore, are a prerequisite for an effective surfactant for connecting EG to wood. The effectiveness of the formulations and surfactants was verified using a radiant heat source test. The cohesion of the coating to the wood surface and the cohesion of the expanded graphite layer were also assessed. The fire efficiency of the surfactants varied greatly. Still, in combination with EG, they were all able to provide sufficient protection—the total relative mass loss was, in all cases, in the range of 7.38–7.83% (for untreated wood it was 88.67 ± 1.33%), and the maximum relative burning rate decreased tenfold compared to untreated wood, i.e., to 0.04–0.05%·s−1. Good results were achieved using Klucel H + EG and CNC + EG formulations. Compared to Klucel H, CNC provides significantly better cohesion of the expanded layer, but its high price increases the cost of the fireproof coating. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficient water treatment ideally combines ion exchange for the removal of hardness elements and toxic trace metals as well as ultrafiltration for the removal of particulate matter. Although promising for adsorption, many high‐surface‐area polymer materials cannot be easily processed into freestanding membranes or packed bed columns, due to poor solution processability and high back pressures, respectively. The preparation of hybrid membranes comprising sulfonated hypercrosslinked polymers entrapped in nanocellulose papers is described. The hybrid membranes are effective for simultaneous ultrafiltration and ion exchange. Increasing the polymer loading of the hybrid membrane produces synergy by increasing the permeance of the membranes while enhancing the ion adsorption capacity to values exceeding those of bulk hypercrosslinked polymers. The maximum ion adsorption capacity for copper is determined to be ≈100 mg g−1 outperforming that of pure polymer (71 mg g−1) and commercially available ion exchange resins. Competitive adsorption is tested in samples containing water hardness elements and trace toxic metal ions showing high ion‐exchange capacities. Even when fully loaded with water hardness elements, Ba2+ and Sr2+ are still removed from solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cancer, a leading cause of mortality worldwide, continues to pose significant challenges in treatment and management. Conventional therapies often face limitations, including lack of selectivity, adverse effects, and the development of resistance mechanisms. Methods: Therefore, this study aims to investigate nanocellulose, nanoselenium, and their nanocomposite which are previously synthesized and characterized. Molecular docking simulations were performed to assess binding affinity to malate dehydrogenase-1 (MDH-1), a key metabolic enzyme in cancer cells. Cytotoxicity was evaluated in A549 lung cancer cell line, the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line, and the WI-38 normal cell line. Mechanistic studies included assessment of MDH-1 activity and expression, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, and cell cycle analysis. Results: Molecular docking simulations demonstrated a favorable binding affinity (136.98 kcal/mol) of cellulose and selenium as cofactor to the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) + hydrogen (H) (NADH) binding domain of human MDH-1. The nanocomposite exhibited a synergistic impact against cancer, causing a considerable decrease in the viability of MCF-7 cells compared to separate treatments with nanocellulose and nanoselenium. Moreover, it showed negligible toxicity towards normal cells. Biochemical studies demonstrated that nanocellulose, nanoselenium and the nanocomposite substantially reduced MDH-1 activity and messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression in MCF-7 cells. This was confirmed by flow cytometric analysis, which revealed that the nanocomposite could effectively reduce the intracellular ROS levels and induce potent cell cycle arrest in the G0/G1 phase, that inhibit MCF-7 cell proliferation. Conclusions: In conclusion, our finding elucidated the promising therapeutic potential of nanocellulose, nanoselenium, and their nanocomposite as effective anticancer agents in breast cancer treatment, demanding further preclinical and clinical investigations to explain their mechanisms of action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction of biomass-based nanofillers into the polyamide matrix may represent a sustainable approach for the development of high-performance engineering plastics. From this standpoint, nanocellulose, derived from various cellulosic sources, has attracted a great deal of attention because of is exceptional mechanical properties, lightweight nature, and biodegradability, which presents significant advantages over conventional inorganic fillers. However, a technical challenge arises in the industrially favorable melt processing of polyamides and nanocellulose. This challenge is associated with the thermal degradation of nanocellulose at high processing temperatures, as well as the strong tendency of nanocellulose to aggregate within the polymer matrix. This review examines recent developments to address these issues. Key approaches based on the surface treatment of nanocellulose as well as optimization of processing conditions are discussed in detail, which can provide insights on the development of nanocellulose-reinforced polyamide composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reusability of thermosets and their composites is challenging due to their robust crosslinked network structures, which underrate them as eco‐friendly materials and severely damage the ecosystem. Here, a novel biomass‐derived cellulose long filament (CLF)‐reinforced vanillyl alcohol epoxy (VAE) composite is fabricated that exhibited outstanding flexural strength of 232.2 ± 7.7 MPa and modulus of 26.9 ± 2.8 GPa compared to the previously reported bio‐mass derived composites. The green CLF‐VAE composite demonstrates good thermal stability and hydrophobic behavior due to the robust interaction between the hydroxyl (─OH) groups of CLFs and functional groups in the lignin‐derived VAE resin. Further, the chemical degradation behavior of the neat VAE thermoset and the green CLF‐VAE composite is studied in a nitric acid solution, and the recycled extract of the thermoset and its composite is used again for producing the 2nd generation CLF‐VAE composite. The optimized 2.5 wt.% loading of the recycled extract in the 2nd generation VAE thermoset and green CLF‐VAE composite demonstrated superior flexural strength and modulus compared to the 1st generation thermoset and composite. The recyclability, along with good thermal and mechanical properties of the biomass‐derived green CLF‐VAE composite, shows its potential for high‐performance structural applications, merging sustainability with circular economy for green solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Date pomace (DP), the primary source of the solid wastes generated from date processing industry, characterized by high sugar concentration and elevated moisture content, it constitutes about 30% of the weight of the processed dates. In addition to the safe disposal, incorporating DP in the medium for bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) production as nutrient source can significantly reduce the production cost. This study aims to investigate the influence of the operational conditions namely the initial pH, incubation temperature, and DP juice ratio in the medium on the yield, water holding capacity, moisture content and morphology of the produced BNC. samples with constant initial pH, and fixed juice ratio were incubated at different temperatures. To explore the optimal initial pH value samples with fixed juice ratio were incubated at 30 °C. Samples with different juic ratio and fixed initial pH value were incubated at 30 °C. The structure and morphology of the produced BNC were tested using Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM). The Maximum BNC wet and dry yields of 31.6 g/L and 0.62 g/L were achieved at an initial pH of 6, an incubation temperature of 30 °C, and a juice ratio in the medium of 10%, respectively. The results FESEM revealed that doubling the DP juice ratio in the culture medium increased the porosity and regularity of the porous structure of the produced BNC. Increasing juice ratio in the medium decreased the yield, water holding capacity and moisture content of the produced BNC. Since oxygen is developed throughout the fermentation process and different types of sugars are produced from the degradation of starch elements in DP, it was difficult to establish a correlation between the sugar and oxygen consumption and the resultant BNC yield. The findings validated the feasibility of employing DP juice as a substrate for the manufacture of nanocellulose material with the added benefit of mitigating environmental pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While cationic cellulose has yet to find a place in the paper industry, manufacturers show certain interest in a more recent material: cellulose nanofibers (CNFs), generally with negative surface charge. This work suggests both to be combined to increase the mechanical properties of recycled paper while preventing the use of synthetic polyelectrolytes as retention agents. On one hand, a bleached pulp was cationized by etherification, both as-is and following mechanical refining (15,000 PFI revolutions) and submitted to high-pressure homogenization, generating two different kinds of cationic CNFs. On the other, the same pulp was submitted to an enzymatic pretreatment and high-pressure homogenization, producing a negatively charged cellulose micro/nanofiber (CMNF). Two different cellulose-based systems consisting of each type of cationic CNF and the enzymatic CMNF were applied in the papermaking of both virgin and recycled paper. This study demonstrates the effective use of the cationic CNFs as retention agents during sheet formation, which together with the enzymatic CMNFs significantly enhanced the mechanical properties of both types of paper. The study found that refining before cationization favored the retention effect, primarily due to increased surface area and charge of the cationic CNFs, where remarkable increases in the breaking length of virgin (125.1%) and recycled paper (46.5%) were reached. The synergy between cationic CNFs and enzymatic CMNFs outperformed the use of commercial polyacrylamide, a non-biodegradable polyelectrolyte. This research highlights the potential of tailored CNFs in producing high-performance papers, while promoting sustainability and offering a plausible strategy to increase paper recycling rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) have been widely studied for their reinforcing potential in high-performance composites. While there are numerous publications on CNF-reinforced composites in a variety of polymer matrices, few have considered the recyclability of such thermoplastic composites and whether the incorporation of CNFs deteriorates or improves their performance upon reprocessing. In this study, two thermoplastic resins, poly(lactic acid) (PLA), and glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate (PETg), were prepared with CNF reinforcement and thermomechanically recycled to investigate the effect of CNF inclusion on the composite properties after reprocessing as well as their effect on the composites' number of useful life cycles. Changes in mechanical, thermal, rheological, molecular, and microstructural properties of the composites and/or base resins were monitored as a function of cycle numbers. As is typical, the polymers' molecular weight and mechanical performance deteriorated with continued processing. However, the addition of spray dried CNF was found to better maintain the mechanical performance of both polymers throughout multiple recycling steps as compared to neat samples. For example, the tensile strength of PETg with 20 wt% CNF after 6 processing cycles was found to exceed that of virgin neat PETg, and higher loadings of CNF were found to preserve a higher yield strength during multiple rounds of reprocessing compared to PETg composites with lower CNF loadings. Ultimately this study indicates that the addition of CNF to some thermoplastic materials can increase both their sustainability by offsetting the use of high-embodied energy resins and their circularity by enabling performance retention over more use cycles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the use of cellulose nanofiber (CNF)-stabilized Pickering emulsions for paper coatings, focusing on their rheological properties and effects on hydrophilicity and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). Two types of Pickering emulsions, oil-in-water (O/W), were stabilized with 1 wt% CNF extracted from fique by-products. The oily phases of the emulsions were composed of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and cocoa butter (CB). The physical stability, viscosity, and viscoelasticity of the emulsions were characterized. The emulsions were applied to the surfaces of Bond and Kraft papers using the rod-coating method. The coating process involved first applying a layer of the PLA emulsion followed by a layer of the CB emulsion. The coated papers were then evaluated by FE-SEM, contact angle, adhesion work, and water vapor transmission rate (WVTR). The results indicated that the coatings effectively produced a slightly hydrophobic surface on the papers, with contact angles approaching 90°. Initially, Kraft paper exhibited a WVTR value of 29.20 ± 1.13 g/m2·h, which significantly decreased to 7.06 ± 2.80 g/m2·h after coating, representing a reduction of 75.82%. Similarly, natural Bond paper showed a WVTR value of 30.56 ± 0.34 g/m2·h, which decreased to 14.37 ± 5.91 g/m2·h after coating, indicating a reduction of 47.02%. These findings demonstrate the potential of CNF-stabilized Pickering emulsions for enhancing the performance of paper coatings in terms of hydrophobicity and moisture barrier properties. The approach of this study aligns with global sustainability goals in packaging materials combining the use of PLA and CB to develop a waterborne coating to enhance the moisture barrier properties, demonstrated by a substantial reduction in water vapor transmission rates, and an improved hydrophobicity of coated papers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract Cellulose is widely distributed in higher plants and constitutes the most abundant natural biopolymer on Earth. Nanocellulose is a cellulose material with nanoscale dimensions, obtained through special processing and treatment. Up to now, nanocellulose has been widely investigated as a biosorbent to absorb various types of pollutants in wastewater due to its excellent properties, such as large specific surface area, antifouling behaviour, high aspect ratio, high heat resistance, excellent mechanical properties, biodegradability and biocompatibility. In addition, nanocellulose can be rationally structured by different recombination techniques such as membranes, sponges, aerogels, hydrogels and microspheres and provide specialised functionality for the adsorption of various types of pollutants from wastewater. This review introduces the basic properties, classification and modification methods of nanocellulose; discusses the preparation strategies of nanocellulose-based recombinant materials (including vacuum/pressurised filtration, sol–gel and electrospinning); reviews research progress in the adsorption of organic dyes and heavy metal Cr, as well as the separation of oil/water using nanocellulose-based recombinant materials; and explores the potential of nanocellulose in treating tannery wastewater. Finally, the problems faced by nanocellulose-based recombinant materials and future prospects are presented. Graphical Abstract

Ulva prolifera, as the dominant species of the green macro-algal bloom, was used as the raw material to prepare cellulose (UPC) by alkali extraction and bleaching treatment with a yield of 23.61%. Nanocelluloses of UPCNC-S, UPCNC-H, and UPCNC-T were prepared using sulfuric acid hydrolysis, hydrochloric acid hydrolysis, and TEMPO oxidation methods, respectively. The structure and micro-morphology of the prepared nanocelluloses were characterized and compared based on yield, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size, zeta potential, and chromaticity value. The results showed that the yields of the nanocelluloses prepared by three methods were 10.07% of UPCNC-S, 32.48% of UPCNC-H, and 26.63% of UPCNC-T, respectively. All three methods did not damage the crystal form and the structure of the cellulose showed, an increase in crystallinity and reached 72.11% (UPCNC-S), 77.16% (UPCNC-H), and 66.53% (UPCNC-T). The thermal stability of nanocellulose UPCNC-S produced by sulfuric acid was to the weakest, while that of UPCNC-H was the optimal. In terms of morphological features, both UPCNC-T and UPCNC-H exhibited short-shaped morphology, with particle sizes concentrated around 430 nm and 610 nm, respectively. In addition to the short rod structure, partially spherical nanocellulose was produced by sulfuric acid hydrolysis, with the smallest particle sizes ranging from 300 nm to 400 nm. The Zeta potential values of the three types of nanocellulose were all less than −30 mV, indicating good stability in suspension. Besides, the color of UPCNC-S was slightly yellowish with the lowest whiteness value, while UPCNC-H and UPCNC-T both showed the whitish appearance. In summary, the nanocellulose prepared from Ulva prolifera in this study exhibited excellent characteristics such as high crystallinity, good dispersion, and small particle sizes, which would provide a theoretical basis for the high-value utilization of Ulva prolifera.

The resistance of epoxy composite modified with nanocellulose and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS) to decay by white rot (Trametes versicolor) and brown rot (Coniophora puteana) fungi was investigated using EN 113 (1996) as the guideline. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of TEOS as a cross-linked agent in epoxy/nanocellulose composite, and its resistance against white rot and brown rot fungi. The epoxy resin was mixed with 10 wt% nanocellulose. The other three sets were prepared the same, but with the addition of 1%, 2%, and 3% TEOS for each set. All types of epoxy composites were air dried in a mold at ambient temperature for seven days followed by oven drying at 80 °C for 30 min. The composites were oven dried at 103 °C, sterilized, and exposed to the fungi at 22 °C for 16 weeks. It was found that the use of 1% to 3% TEOS in the composite reduced the percent weight loss following decay by T. versicolor, but not in the case of C. puteana. Overall, all types of the composite in this study were classified as highly durable and durable against the T. versicolor and C. puteana respectively. The surface and structure of all types of composites were still intact after 16 weeks of exposure period.

Two different morphologies of nanocellulose - cellulose nanofibres (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) with different contents were added to emulsified sausages to replace pork back fat in different proportions (10%, 30%, and 50%), and the colour, emulsion stability, texture characteristics and dynamic rheological behaviour of emulsified sausages were analysed. The results indicate substituting fat with nanocellulose led the L* (lightness) and a* (redness) values increased and the b* (yellowness) values decreased of the emulsified sausages. Increasing nanocellulose concentration improved the emulsion stability of the sausages. In terms of emulsion stability, the use of CNFs outperformed CNCs, especially for samples substituted with 50% fat. In terms of texture, emulsified sausages where CNCs replaced fat showed lower hardness, viscosity, and chewiness compared to those with CNFs. The dynamic rheological results indicated that when the fat replacement levels were 10% and 30%, samples using CNFs as fat substitute had slightly higher storage modulus (G') values than those using CNCs. However, for 50% fat replacement, samples using CNFs as fat substitute had significantly higher G' values than those using CNCs, which demonstrates that higher CNFs concentrations are more conducive to the formation of a three-dimensional network structure.

Abstract The 3D printing technique has recently become more prevalent among researchers for the fabrication of nanocomposites. The low crystallinity of polylactic acid (PLA) leads to the poor mechanical and thermal properties of its 3D-printed products, which restrict their applications in many fields. To overcome the limitations of PLA, the present work aims to develop PLA-based bionanocomposite filaments with varying percentages (1, 3, and 5 wt%) of crystalline nanocellulose (CNC) through a single screw extruder. The filaments will be further utilized for the development of bionanocomposite samples to evaluate their properties. The effect of CNC reinforcement on the chemical structure of the filaments was analyzed by FTIR analysis. XRD analysis revealed that the crystallinity of the filaments was significantly improved due to the nucleating effect of CNC. The maximum crystallinity was observed in the filament containing 1 wt% CNC, which was 26% higher than the pure PLA filament. The thermal and mechanical performance of the filaments was also considerably improved after CNC reinforcement, which was confirmed by DSC-TGA and tensile test analysis. The maximum tensile strength and tensile modulus were observed to be 48.9 MPa and 1700 MPa, respectively, in the filament reinforced with 1 wt% CNC, which was 35.5% and 21.89%, respectively, higher than those of the pure PLA filament. Rheological analysis showed that the complex viscosity, storage modulus, and loss modulus of the filaments were significantly affected by the reinforcement of CNC.