Search

International audience; Large firms dominate R&D investment in most countries and receive the majority of public R&D funding. Due to methodological difficulties, however, evaluation of the effect of government-sponsored R&D programmes mainly focuses on small-and medium-sized enterprises. The scarcity of large firms and their heterogeneity hampers the ability to find proper counterfactuals for very large companies and makes it difficult to use proper inference methods to measure the impact of a specific policy. In order to address these methodological issues, we propose using the synthetic control method, initially developed by Abadie et al. (2010) to evaluate programmes on a regional scale. We apply this method to evaluate the impact of a new French science-industry transfer initiative and compare the results with the random trend model and more standard counterfactual approaches. Based on data covering a long pre-treatment period (1998-2011) and ongoing treatment period (2012-2015), we reveal a convergence between the results obtained with the synthetic control method and the random trend model, and demonstrate that traditional counterfactual evaluation methods are not appropriate for large firms. Moreover, the synthetic control method has the advantage of providing an individual assessment of the policy impact on each firm. In the specific case of the French science-industry transfer initiative, it reveals that the impact on private R&D is highly heterogenous both on RD inputs and cooperation behaviours. Beyond this specific transfer policy, this study suggests that the synthetic control method opens new research perspectives in policy impact evaluation at the firm level. Abstract: Large firms dominate R&D investment in most countries and receive the majority of public R&D funding. Due to methodological difficulties, however, evaluation of the effect of government-sponsored R&D programmes mainly focuses on small-and medium-sized enterprises. The scarcity of large firms and their heterogeneity hampers the ability to find proper counterfactuals for very large companies and makes it difficult to use proper inference methods to measure the impact of a specific policy. In order to address these methodological issues, we propose using the synthetic control method, initially developed by Abadie et al. (2010) to evaluate programmes on a regional scale. We apply this method to evaluate the impact of a new French science-industry transfer initiative and compare the results with the random trend model and more standard counterfactual approaches. Based on data covering a long pre-treatment period (1998-2011) and ongoing treatment period (2012-2015), we reveal a convergence between the results obtained with the synthetic control method and the random trend model, and demonstrate that traditional counterfactual evaluation methods are not appropriate for large firms. Moreover, the synthetic control method has the advantage of providing an individual assessment of the policy impact on each firm. In the specific case of the French science-industry transfer initiative, it reveals that the impact on private R&D is highly heterogenous both on RD inputs and cooperation behaviours. Beyond this specific transfer policy, this study suggests that the synthetic control method opens new research perspectives in policy impact evaluation at the firm level.

The aim of this special issue is threefold. Firstly, it highlights major recent methodological advances to address the two key issues referred to above: improving extended KPF analyses, on the one hand, and developing strategic approaches using microeconomic data, on the other:[br/][br/] * Two papers are presented using Knowldge Production Functions (KPF). They offer new methodologies to deal with the issue of regional heterogeneity when estimating KPF at the regional level in Europe. [br/][br/] * Using more microeconomic approaches, three papers contribute to the second topic. They use micro-economic data to show how firms’ strategies may interact with the local environment and impact upon the determinants of agglomeration dynamics.[br/][br/] Secondly, this issue draws attention to interesting new results emerging from the application of these new methodologies to the analysis of innovation dynamics in European regions and shows how they can help one to revisit some main tenets of received wisdom concerning the rationale and impact of public policies on the Geography of Innovation.[br/][br/] Finally this special issue also identifies issues that still require further research, particularly in relation to the development of new methodologies for the evaluation of public policies integrating the spatial dimension and the interdependencies between public policies implemented at different regional scales, which remains no more than an emerging field in the Geography of Innovation. [br/][br/] The special issue concludes with a paper presenting a new theoretical framework for the analysis and evaluation of local innovation public policies using simulation methodology. All these papers have important policy implications.

Based on a spatial extension of an R&D investment model, this paper measures the macroeconomic impact of the French R&D policy mix on business R&D using regional data. Our measure takes into account not only the direct effect of policies but also indirect effects generated by the existence of spatial interaction between regions. Using a unique database containing information on the levels of various R&D policy instruments received by firms in French NUTS3 regions over the period 2001–2011, our estimates of a spatial Durbin model with structural breaks and fixed effects reveal the existence of a negative spatial dependence among R&D investments in regions. In this context, while a-spatial estimates would conclude that all instruments have a crowding-in effect, we show that national subsidies are the only instrument that is able to generate significant crowding-in effects. On the contrary, it seems that the design, size and spatial allocation of funds from the other instruments (tax credits, local subsidies, European subsidies) lead them to act (in the French context) as beggar-thy-neighbor policies. Fil: Montmartin, Benjamin. Université Côte d’Azur; Francia Fil: Herrera Gomez, Marcos Hernan. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Salta. Facultad de Ciencias Económicas, Jurídicas y Sociales. Instituto de Estudios Laborales y del Desarrollo Económico; Argentina Fil: Massard, Nadine. Université Grenoble Alpes; Francia

Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to research and development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources: the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.

Spurred on by the theory of network formation, and by the geography of innovation, traditional analyses on R&D cooperation face a deep renewal. This paper assesses the extent to which these renewals find an empirical validation. Based on the research projects submitted to the 6th Framework Program of the European Union, a binary choice model is used in order to highlight the existence of network and spatial effects alongside other microeconomic determinants of cooperation. Our findings suggest that network effects are present, so that probability of collaboration is influenced by each individual's position within the network. Social distance thus seems to matter more than geographical distance. Abstract. Los analisis tradicionales de cooperacion I+D se enfrentan a una renovacion profunda, estimulada por la teoria de formacion de redes, y la geografia de la innovacion. Este articulo evalua el alcance con que esta renovacion logra obtener una validacion empirica. Basado en proyectos de investigacion presentados al Sexto Programa Marco de la Union Europea, se emplea un modelo de eleccion binaria para poner de relieve la existencia de efectos de red y espaciales junto con otros determinantes macroeconomicos de cooperacion. Nuestros hallazgos sugieren que los efectos de red estan presentes, de modo que la probabilidad de colaboracion se ve influida por la posicion de cada individuo dentro de la red. La distancia social parece por tanto importar mas que la distancia geografica.

International audience; The theory of endogenous growth and the geography and growth synthesis both consider that local growth and spatial concentration of economic activities emanate from localised knowledge spillovers (Lucas 1988; Martin and Ottaviano 1999). Since the end of the 1980's, the spatial dimension of knowledge diffusion has been investigated from an empirical point of view, and the existence and role of local spillovers has been generally confirmed (see among others Jaffe 1989; Audretsch and Feldman 1996). The concern that now arises is to unravel the mechanisms underlying and explaining the geographical knowledge spillovers. The aim of this special issue is to present the latest new findings on such questions and to identify some new lines of research for future work. Before presenting the content of this special issue, we very briefly review the main results of the empirical literature on the geography of innovation. We also explain the context of this special issue by pointing out some of the limitations faced by this literature and, by stressing the complex dynamic and network dimensions of the observed processes of production and diffusion of knowledge.

The aim of this special issue is threefold. Firstly, it highlights major recent methodological advances to address the two key issues referred to above: improving extended KPF analyses, on the one hand, and developing strategic approaches using microeconomic data, on the other:[br/][br/] * Two papers are presented using Knowldge Production Functions (KPF). They offer new methodologies to deal with the issue of regional heterogeneity when estimating KPF at the regional level in Europe. [br/][br/] * Using more microeconomic approaches, three papers contribute to the second topic. They use micro-economic data to show how firms’ strategies may interact with the local environment and impact upon the determinants of agglomeration dynamics.[br/][br/] Secondly, this issue draws attention to interesting new results emerging from the application of these new methodologies to the analysis of innovation dynamics in European regions and shows how they can help one to revisit some main tenets of received wisdom concerning the rationale and impact of public policies on the Geography of Innovation.[br/][br/] Finally this special issue also identifies issues that still require further research, particularly in relation to the development of new methodologies for the evaluation of public policies integrating the spatial dimension and the interdependencies between public policies implemented at different regional scales, which remains no more than an emerging field in the Geography of Innovation. [br/][br/] The special issue concludes with a paper presenting a new theoretical framework for the analysis and evaluation of local innovation public policies using simulation methodology. All these papers have important policy implications.

Starting from the dynamic externalities debate presented by Glaeser and al. in 1992, many recent econometric studies attempt to assess the impact of specialization and of the sector-based diversity of agglomerations on local growth dynamics. Contrary to theoretical approaches however, these studies generally don't provide direct analysis of the role of knowledge externalities because they attach little importance to research and development activities. Hardly any geography and innovation studies exist on that theme and they nearly always deal with the United States. In this paper, we propose a study of the French case, which confronts the respective roles of specialization and diversity on localized R&D data so as to assess the impact on innovation production. Specialization appears as unfavorable to the local dynamics of innovation in France whereas the results on diversity reveal some more complex spatial processes.

L'objet de cet article est de mettre en évidence l'intérêt d'une politique technologique territorialisée, c'est-à-dire développée et différenciée sur plusieurs échelons territoriaux. Cette justification est réalisée sur la base d'un retour aux fondements théoriques de la politique technologique, à partir du concept d'extemalité, pris dans sa forme traditionnelle et dans ses renouvellements. Les questions d'incitation à la recherche, de diffusion des connaissances technologiques et les problèmes spécifiques aux technologies de réseau sont ainsi abordés. Dans cette perspective, l'utilisation territorialement différenciée des instruments de la politique technologique se justifie et peut constituer la base d'une nouvelle conception de l'intervention publique dans ce domaine, articulant différents niveaux territoriaux dans une logique coordinatrice. Le modèle conceptuel est appliqué au contexte européen pour distinguer les modalités possibles d'une politique technologique territorialisée sur trois niveaux : régional, national et européen., Fadairo Muriel, Massard Nadine. Externalités et politique technologique, une approche en terme de coordination territoriale. In: Politiques et management public, vol. 20, n° 2, 2002. Reconfigurer l'action publique : big bang ou réforme ? Actes du onzième colloque international - Nice, jeudi 4 et vendredi 5 octobre 2001 - Tome 2. pp. 161-184.

At the present time, the study of the mechanisms of knowledge transmission becomes increasingly significant to reveal the operating modes of the scientific production and, in particular, to reveal the possible existence of geographical limit to the diffusion of knowledge externalities. This paper presents an empirical study on the French case. It consists of mapping out the density of the scientific collaborations between « départements » by the mean of an original method for structuring data, which we developed and applied to co-publications data. Then, we confront the scientific structure obtained with the geographical structure of the French « départements ». Classification JEL : O31, R12.

International audience; This article builds upon the empirical results concerning localised knowledge spillovers in order to highlight some policy implications within the European regions. The analysis emphasises the role of the regional innovationpolicies as supporting the institutions which generate knowledge and learning. However, it appears that the search for universal policy tools is unrealistic. The empirical literature stresses indeed a variety of regional features. In this perspective, we argue that original strategies have to be built in order to cope with the various dilemmas faced by regional innovationpolicies, concerning in particular the best way to enhance and exploit public/private, intra/inter-firms, intra/inter-industries and local/global knowledge flows. Such specific strategies require having an accurate knowledge on the local features and on the comparative positioning of the concerned region compared to others. Improving data and indicators to diagnose and monitor regional innovation is therefore presented as a key issue for the policy makers.

Many economists have long held that market failures create a gap between social and private returns to Research and Development (R&D), thereby limiting private incentives to invest in R&D. However, this common belief that firms significantly underinvest in R&D is increasingly being challenged, leading the rationale behind public support for private R&D to be questioned. In this paper, we attempt to clarify the perspectives of two sources: the theoretical literature on endogenous growth, and its recent developments in integrating a geographical dimension, and the empirical literature that measures the social returns to R&D in relation to the private returns. Ultimately, we are able to clearly distinguish among different types of market failures and compare their relative impact on the gap between the private and social returns to R&D. Two main conclusions are reached. First, systematic firm underinvestment in R&D is not demonstrated. Second, even though instances of underinvestment do occur, they are mainly explained by surplus appropriability problems rather than by knowledge externalities. This suggests the need for a new policy mix that employs more demand-oriented instruments and is more concentrated on identifying efficient allocations among activities rather than merely increasing global private R&D investment.

This paper investigates the effect of inter-firm and intra-firm spillovers on the productivity of firms, using French data. The Luenberger Productivity Indicator (LPI) is used to estimate the productivity and to break it down into several components (e.g. efficiency, biased technical progress, scales effects, etc.). Using this approach, negative productivity changes are found due to the unfavourable economic situation over 2000–2002. Diverse forms of intra- and inter-firm externalities are then investigated through a Maximum Likelihood Random Effect (MLRE) model. Spillover effects due to spatial agglomeration – influencing Total Factor Productivity (TFP) and its correspondent components, technological and efficiency changes, are found.

CNRS NR; AERES NR; This paper proposes a comment on the article by M. A. Maggioni and T. E. Uberti within this issue. It focuses on one main question: can we say that the literature on Networks and Geography has reached the initial objective assigned to it: "Demonstrate that networks and geography are the necessary ingredients for every study of the innovative process at any level of analysis: from individual agents, to institution/organization, from the regional to the national and international level"? The answer to this question is presented following three main steps: (1) How do geographical positioning and network positioning interact to impact the innovative performance? (2) What is the influence of the geography on the networking strategies (cooperation choices)? (3) What is the influence of the network upon geographical strategies (location choices)? The conclusion is that the field described by Mario Maggioni and Erika Uberti is, as their paper shows, fast expanding and already has a history and appreciable results. It still clearly appears however that much still remains to be done if the potentiality offered by the cross-use of spatial and network analysis when dealing with knowledge diffusion and its impact on innovation is to be fully exploited. No doubt that the important advances accomplished during these last years in the collecting of data related to localized relationships will provide the necessary incentives to develop the still greatly lacking micro-econometric analyses.

Axés initialement sur la mesure de la dimension géographique des externalités de connaissances à des niveaux spatiaux agrégés, les travaux en économie géographique de l’innovation sont progressivement amenés à se tourner vers l’analyse des mécanismes sous-jacents à la diffusion de connaissances dans l’espace (capacité d’absorption, échanges en face à face, mobilités professionnelles…). La mise en évidence de ces mécanismes justifie à son tour les perspectives de recherche orientées vers la compréhension des comportements individuels de coopération en matière d’innovation. Ces comportements fondent en effet la dynamique des réseaux d’acteurs qui caractérise aujourd’hui les phénomènes d’innovation collective et qui cumule des dimensions locales et globales. Une meilleure compréhension des déterminants de la configuration spatiale de ces réseaux apparaît aujourd’hui essentielle à une bonne appréciation des rapports innovation-espace. Cet article se donne pour objectif de retracer la logique des recherches menées dans ce domaine ces dernières décennies. Leading on from the measurement of the geographical dimension of knowledge externalities at aggregated spatial levels, the works carried out in the economic geography of innovation have gradually turned towards the analysis of the mechanisms underlying the spatial diffusion of knowledge (absorption capacity, face-to-face exchanges, professional mobility). Bringing these mechanisms to the fore has justified new researches which have been directed at understanding individual behavioural patterns in terms of cooperation for innovation. Indeed, the dynamics of the networks of actors who nowadays characterise collective innovation phenomena and combine local and global dimensions is based upon such behaviour. Thus, it would appear that a better understanding of the factors determining the spatial configuration of these networks has become necessary in order to fully grasp the relationships between innovation and space. The objective of this article is to go back over the logic of the researches carried out in this field during the last decades.

This paper investigates the effect of inter-firm and intra-firm spillovers on the productivity of firms, using French data. The Luenberger Productivity Indicator (LPI) is used to estimate the productivity and to break it down into several components (e.g. efficiency, biased technical progress, scale effects, etc.). Using this approach, negative productivity changes are found due to the unfavourable economic situation over 2000-2002. Intangible assets underlying productivity change are then investigated through a Maximum Likelihood Random Effect (MLRE) model. Spillover effects – influencing Total Factor Productivity (TFP) and its correspondent components, technological and efficiency changes – are found.

Using a sample of 46,000 EU firms from the Community Innovation Survey, this paper analyses the drivers of innovation adoption. In contrast to most empirical studies on innovation diffusion in which a specific technology is analyzed, this study covers several countries and industries in the European Union. Following Van de Ven and Van Praag (1981), Heckman’s method is applied in a context of binary endogenous variable to explain the choices made by firms regarding innovation. Distinctions are made between the internal generation of innovation and the adoption of innovation produced by others, as well as between different types of adoption (product vs. process and cooperation-based adoption vs. isolated adoption). The study is focused on the impact of users’ features and their cooperation with suppliers on the adoption choices. The results point out that cooperation is a key driver of adoption choices. Usual determinants such as firm size, absorptive capability or exports would foster generation of innovation instead of adoption.

This article builds upon empirical results concerning localised knowledge spillovers to highlight some policy implications within European regions. The analysis emphasises the role of regional innovation policies in supporting the institutions that generate knowledge and learning. However, the variety of regional features presented in the empirical literature suggests that the search for universal policy tools is unrealistic. From this perspective, we argue that original strategies must be generated to cope with the various dilemmas faced by regional innovation policies. Such specific strategies require accurate knowledge of local features. Improving data and indicators to diagnose and monitor regional innovation is therefore presented as a key issue for policy makers.

The main aim of the present study is to analyze the drivers of innovation adoption by (i) developing proper measures able to proxy for innovation adoption and internal market regulations, (ii) identifying the channels through which innovation adoption takes place and (iii) assessing the main determinants of this adoption process within the internal market. An original model is derived from the theoretical literature on innovation diffusion. Results show that the impact of the transmission channels on innovation adoption is especially important for cooperation, leaving trade and competition as apparently minor channels of innovation diffusion (and especially depending on the type of innovation adoption under examination). The overall result argues that more cooperation across firms and countries is going to be beneficial to the process of innovation adoption.

Massard N. and Mehier C. Proximity and innovation through an ‘accessibility to knowledge’ lens, Regional Studies. The aim of this paper is to improve understanding of the spatial diffusion process of knowledge in terms of accessibility, and also to elaborate a new measurement and evaluation tools adapted to a concrete estimation of these phenomena. This approach offers ways of giving an operational content to the concept of proximity. The ‘potential functions’ used to measure geographical accessibility is enriched with the integration of the characteristics of knowledge diffusion, namely sources of externalities/knowledge, ways of transmission, and absorptive capacity. The paper especially focuses on the relational and strategic dimensions of proximity by using some developments from social networks analysis. Such an approach leads to new empirical models for estimating the determinants of accessibility to knowledge. Massard N. et Mehier C. Proximite et innovation: une approche par l'accessibilite aux con...

Dans le contexte européen, les politiques récentes d’innovation et de compétitivité sont souvent fondées sur la logique des clusters, comme par exemple en France avec la politique des pôles de compétitivité. La mise en place de ces politiques suscite des besoins en termes d’indicateurs pour caractériser les clusters mais aussi pour mieux appréhender leur impact sur la performance des entreprises et de manière plus générale sur le développement territorial. Cet article se donne pour but de faire le point sur les tentatives de mesures de performance des clusters en analysant leurs apports et leurs limites et en insistant sur la diversité des pratiques. Elles débouchent sur des propositions pour l’élaboration d’un tableau de bord de suivi des clusters. Within the European context, current policies for innovation and competitiveness are often based on the cluster’s principles, as in France for example with the « pôles de compétitivité » policy. Implementing such policies creates new needs for indicators capable to characterize clusters and also to better grasp their impact on the performances of firms and more generally on local development. This article aims at reviewing existing methods for the measurement of clusters’ performances, underlining their main interests and limitations, and particularly insisting on the diversity of practices. It results in proposals for the elaboration of a monitoring scoreboard for clusters.

http://www.springerlink.com/content/p1185018r6542206/fulltext.pdf; International audience; The paper examines the determinants of the creation of high tech SMEs at a regional level. Relations between the scientific and technical profile of a region, the size of the local market for biotech products and services, and economic development are explored in the French biotech industry during the 1990's. Empirical analysis shows that a high level of scientific activity within a region is necessary to sustain a continuous flow of new business creation. The likelihood of firm creation depends on scientific and technological organizational factors like cooperation between academic and private organizations. Regional policies can have positive impact on firm creation, especially by promoting diversity and excellence in science. However, contrasting with the U.S. results, the size of the local market for biotech products and services matters in the industry development

Based on the research projects submitted to the 6th Framework Program of the European Union, this paper studies cooperative networks in micro and nanotechnologies. Our objective is twofold. First, using the statistical tools of the social network analysis, we characterise the structure of the R&D collaborations established between firms. Second, we investigate the determinants of this structure, by analysing the individual choices of cooperation. A binary choice model is used to put forward the existence of network effects alongside other microeconomic determinants of cooperation. Our findings suggest that network effects are present, so that probability of collaboration is influenced by each individual's position within the network. It seems that social distance matters more than geographical distance. We also provide some evidence that similar firms (in terms of research potential) are more likely to collaborate together

This book begins with a theoretical examination of regional innovation systems, agglomeration economics and knowledge spillovers, before going on to examine the same concepts within an empirical framework. Special emphasis is given to the importance of proximity in the formation of regional innovation systems. It concludes by considering innovation and human capital as determinants of regional economic growth.

The aim of this chapter is to understand the determinants of the creation and growth of high-tech small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) at a regional level as industry matures. The biotech sector is examined to understand the role of local environment in the economic valorisation1 of scientific results.We specifically investigate the influence of the determinants of the creation and growth of biotech SMEs: a scientific and technical profile of a region and the size of the local market for biotech products and services.

Innovation, always at the forefront of technological progress, has become a predominant business issue. Globalization has forced companies to constantly adapt to a changing environment, and has made competition fiercer. The need to innovate—in terms of products, manufacturing processes, or internal corporate organization—is constant.keywordsservice sectorservice industryinternal resistanceequity capitaltechnical servicethese keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Acknowledgments. 1. Location, Location, Location: Institutions and Systems in the Geography of Innovation M. Feldman, N. Massard. Part I: Theoretical Understandings. 2. Learning to Communicate in the Production of Collective Knowledge C. Antonelli. 3. The Knowledge Dilemma and the Geography of Innovation D. Foray, J. Mairesse. 4. University Technology Transfer and the System of Innovation M.P. Feldman, et al. 5. Globalization and Communication Technologies and the Role of Small Firms in Innovation D.B. Audretsch. 6. Urban Diversity and Intersectoral Diffusion: Some Insights from the Study of Technical Creativity P. Desrochers. 7. Innovation, Institutions, Space: Two Research Traditions in National Systems of Innovation M. Bellet, et al. Part II: Empirical Studies. 8. The Role of Geographical Proximity in the Organization of Industrial R C. Carrincazeaux. 9. The Geography of Knowledge Spillovers and Technological Proximity C. Autant-Bernard. 10. The Regional Distribution of Technological Development: Evidence from Foreign-Owned Firms in Germany J.A. Cantwell, C. Noonan. 11. Barriers to Innovation in Service Industries in Canada P. Mohnen, J.M. Rosa. 12. Knowledge Spillovers in Biotechnology: Moving the Logic of Science Closer to the Logic of Firms M. Gittelman. Part III: Policy. 13. Public Policies, Regional Inequalities, and Growth P. Martin. 14. Technology Externalities and Compromise in Innovation Policy: The European Union Case M. Fadairo. 15. TheDevelopment of High-Tech Clusters: Theoretical Insights and Policy Implications M.A. Maggioni. 16. Future Challenges and Institutional Preconditions for Regional Development Policy P. Maskell. Index.

The rate of innovation and technical change is important to an economy’s rate of growth. More than strictly an academic interest, differences in knowledge creation, diffusion, and use have implications for international competitiveness, standards of living, and quality of life. We have, however, a limited understanding of the sources of technical progress and the reasons that innovation varies over time and across space. New methods of modeling imperfect competition and increasing returns have placed the persistence of agglomeration economies at the heart of the analysis. Within the recent empirical literature there is an appreciation for the locational context and the diversity of the landscape that condition economic activity. The concept of location is now defined as a geographic unit over which interaction and communication are facilitated, search intensity is increased, and, in general, task coordination is eased. In addition, knowledge is not easily contained, and geography provides one means to define knowledge spillovers. For these reasons, the generation of innovation may be enhanced in certain locations, and, as a result, these areas benefit from higher rates of technological advance and economic growth.

The influencing factors upon the industrialisation movement of optical fibers both interfere on the setting-up of a technical « filiere » for the production of optical fibers and on the insertion process of this « filiere » within the industrial structures. The technical research can then appear, in this movement, as an instrument used for the resolution of contradictions between technical dynamic, and industrial structures and strategies. It leads to the development of new forms — more autonomous compared to traditional technics — for the production of optical fibers., Les déterminants du processus d'industrialisation des fibres optiques interviennent tant au niveau de la constitution d'une filière technique pour la production des fibres optiques qu'au niveau de l'insertion de cette filière au sein des structures industrielles. La recherche technique apparaît alors, dans ce mouvement, comme un instrument de gestion et de dépassement des contradictions entre dynamisme technique, structures et stratégies industrielles. Elle pousse au développement de formes nouvelles, plus autonomes par rapport aux techniques anciennes, pour la production des fibres optiques., Massard Nadine. « Dynamique technique et industrialisation des fibres optiques ». In: Revue d'économie industrielle, vol. 39, 1er trimestre 1987. Les nouvelles industries de l'information et de la communication, sous la direction de Marc Humbert et Laurent Gille. pp. 186-197.

This book offers a novel insight into the economic dynamics of modern biotechnology, using examples from Europe to reflect global trends. The authors apply theoretical insight to a fundamental enigma of the modern learning society, namely, how and why the development of knowledge and ideas interact with market processes and the formation of industries and firms.

Renewable energies (REN) are essential to decarbonize energy systems and tackle climate change. Due to market failures, governments implement public policies to support these technologies. This thesis aims at assessing the effectiveness of climate policies supporting innovation and diffusion in REN. From this general objective, we define three problematics addressed in three different chapters.Generally, we distinguish two types of climate policies: those supporting innovation (techno-push) and those supporting diffusion (demand-pull). There is a debate in the academic literature about the optimal distribution between demand-pull and techno-push support. Indeed, there would be a strong imbalance between public spending on the two types of policies. This observation raises the question of the sustainability of the ongoing technological change and the need, or not, for redeployment through innovation. This thesis will aim to fuel this debate with a review of empirical studies. This literature review shows that the effect of policies on innovation and diffusion varies according to the type of policy and the level of maturity of REN. The undifferentiated policies (e.g. green certificates) stimulate innovation in mature and near-competitive technologies, while guaranteed prices (e.g. feed-in tariffs) are more appropriate for more expensive technologies.The results of our literature review also highlight a lack of studies on the effect of knowledge spillovers on the innovation performance of countries in REN. The chapter two aims at filling this gap by investigating, at the national level, the relations between the relative innovation performance in wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy and the relative innovation performance in their main complementary technologies. Our results show that innovations in transport, mechanical and building technologies play a crucial role in the development of wind energy. Innovations in optics, coatings and chemistry are essential for solar PV. This chapter leads to the identification of countries that would have a strong interest to innovate further in REN because of their specialization in complementary technologies (in particular France in wind energy and Belgium in solar PV).Moreover, the existing empirical literature seems to face difficulties to model and to take into account the interactions between public policies, innovation performance and export performance in REN, whereas in a green growth context these issues are crucial at the country level. The objective of the third chapter is to fill this gap using PVAR (Panel Vector Auto Regressive) models. Our results show that public RD expenditures seems to be more appropriate than demand-pull policies to improve export performance for both technologies (wind and solar PV). We also conclude that there is no virtuous circle between relative innovation and export performance for both technologies. Nevertheless, we find some different results between them, which could be explained by the different barriers to entry and sunk costs., Les énergies renouvelables (ENR) jouent un rôle central pour décarboner les systèmes énergétiques et lutter contre le réchauffement climatique. Du fait de défaillances de marché, des politiques publiques visant à soutenir ces technologies sont nécessaires. Cette thèse vise à évaluer l’efficacité des politiques climatiques de soutien à l’innovation et à la diffusion dans les ENR. Cet objectif général se décline en trois problématiques qui sont abordées dans trois différents chapitres.Deux types de politique de soutien aux ENR sont généralement distinguées: les politiques de soutien à l'innovation (dites techno-push) et les politiques de soutien à la diffusion (dites demand-pull). Un débat existe dans la littérature académique pour définir la répartition optimale entre soutien demand-pull et soutien techno-push. En effet, il existerait un fort déséquilibre entre les dépenses publiques accordées aux deux types de politiques. Ce constat pose la question de la pérennité du processus de changement technologique en cours et de la nécessité, ou non, d’un redéploiement par l’innovation. Cette thèse vise à éclairer ce débat en se basant sur une revue des études empiriques. Cette revue de la littérature montre que l'effet des politiques sur l’innovation et la diffusion varie selon le type de politique et selon le niveau de maturité des ENR. Les politiques indifférenciées quant aux technologies ciblées (certificats verts par exemple), stimulent l’innovation dans les technologies matures et proches de la compétitivité alors que les prix garantis (tarifs d’achat par exemple) sont plus appropriés pour les technologies plus coûteuses.Les résultats de notre revue de la littérature font également ressortir un manque d’études sur l’effet des spillovers de connaissances sur les performances en innovation des pays dans les ENR. Le chapitre deux vise à combler cette lacune en étudiant, au niveau national, la relation entre la performance relative en innovation dans les énergies éoliennes et solaires photovoltaïques (PV) et la performance relative en innovation dans leur(s) principale(s) technologie(s) complémentaire(s). Les résultats montrent que les innovations dans le domaine des transports, de la mécanique et du bâtiment jouent un rôle crucial pour le développement de l'énergie éolienne. Les innovations en matière d'optique, de revêtement et de chimie sont essentielles pour le solaire PV. Ce chapitre aboutit à l’identification de pays qui auraient un fort intérêt à innover davantage dans les ENR du fait de leur spécialisation dans les technologies complémentaires (en particulier la France dans les énergies éoliennes et la Belgique dans les énergies solaires PV).Par ailleurs, la littérature empirique existante semble se heurter à des difficultés à modéliser et à prendre en compte les interactions entre les politiques publiques, la performance en innovation et la performance à l’export, alors que dans un objectif de croissance verte ces enjeux sont cruciaux pour les pays. L’objectif du chapitre trois est de contribuer à combler cette lacune en utilisant des modèles PVAR (Panel Vector Autoregressive). Nos résultats montrent que les dépenses publiques de RD semblent être plus appropriées que les politiques de diffusion pour améliorer les performances à l'exportation pour les deux technologies (éolien et solaire PV). Pour les technologies éoliennes et solaires PV nous concluons également à l’absence de cercle vertueux entre les performances relatives en innovation et à l’export. Nous constatons néanmoins quelques résultats différents entre les deux technologies, qui pourraient être expliqués par les différences de barrières à l'entrée et sur les coûts irrécupérables.

This thesis aims to evaluate and analyse the direct and indirect effects of the Rhône-Alpes Technological Research Institutes (IRTs), which are one of the innovation policy devices based on science-industry transfers, created in France as pait of the Future Investment Programme. By applying a difference-in-difference model combined with matching methods, the results show a direct positive effect on turnover and financial autonomy and indicate that this effect varies according to the duration of participation and the type of assistance received. In addition, the type of assistance would play a more important role than the duration of treatment in the effectiveness of TRis. The results also indicate that the TRI had positive indirect effects on turnover, financial autonomy and the share of executives of non-directly beneficiary SMEs but located in the treated area and that these effects do not appear immediately after the treatment but a few years later. In addition, this research work assesses and analyses the direct effects of TRis by focusing on the R&D performance of large companies. Using the random trend model and the synthetic control model, the results of the first model indicate that participation in TRis has had an additional direct effect on total net R&D expenditures and that these expenditures are largely self-­financed and used outside the company through collaborations and outsourcing. The results of the second model show that a single company has almost systematic effects on all R&D performance indicators.; Cette thèse vise à évaluer et analyser les effets directs et indirects des Instituts de Recherche Technologique (IRT) Rhônalpins qui sont l'un des dispositifs des politiques d'innovation fondées sur les transferts science-industrie, créés en France dans le cadre du Programme d'investissement d' Avenir. En appliquant un modèle de différence-en-différence combiné aux méthodes d'appariement, les résultats montrent un effet direct positif sur le chiffre d'affaires et l'autonomie financière et indiquent que cet effet varie en fonction de la durée de participation et du type d'aide reçu. Par ailleurs le type d'aide jouerait un rôle plus important que la durée de traitement dans l'efficacité des IRT. Les résultats indiquent aussi que l'IRT a eu les effet indirects positifs sur le chiffre d'affaires, l'autonomie financière et la part des cadres des PMEs non-directement bénéficiaires, localisées dans la zone traitée et que ces effets n'apparaissent pas immédiatement après le traitement mais quelques années plus tard. Par ailleurs, ce travail de recherche évalue et analyse les effets directs des IRT en se focalisant sur les performances de R&D des grandes entreprises. En utilisant le modèle à tendance aléatoire et le modèle de contrôle synthétique, les résultats du premier modèle indiquent que la participation aux IRT a eu un effet direct additionnel sur les dépenses totales de R&D nettes et que ces dépenses sont largement autofinancées et utilisées à l'extérieur de l'entreprise à travers les collaborations et les sous-traitances. Les résultats du second modèle montrent qu'une seule entreprise a des effets quasi-systématiques sur tous les indicateurs de performance de R&D.

This thesis aims at measuring the effects of innovation policies. It first focuses on the effects of the European Union (EU) policy titled Framework Programmes for Research and Development (FPs) on the regional innovation of the EU 27 countries. Thereafter, it brings a deep analysis of the effects of the French Competitiveness Clusters policy on firms’ innovation process and on their performances.The originality of the thesis lies in the mobilization of innovative macro and micro-econometric techniques to evaluate public policies. The results of this work will inform the role and effectiveness of the Framework Programmes for Research and Development in regional innovation dynamics, but also the effectiveness of the Competitiveness Clusters policy on French firms’ performances in terms of innovation, incentives for private investments, job creation and market competitiveness.; Cette thèse a pour objectif de mesurer les effets des politiques d’innovation. D’abord, elle se penche sur les effets de la politique de l’Union Européenne intitulée Programmes Cadres de Recherche et Développement (PCRDT) sur l’innovation des régions des 27 pays de l’Union Européenne. Ensuite, elle apporte une analyse approfondie des effets des Pôles de Compétitivité sur le processus d’innovation des entreprises françaises et leurs performances.L’originalité de la thèse réside essentiellement dans la mobilisation de techniques novatrices d'évaluation macro et micro-économétriques des politiques publiques. Les résultats de ces travaux éclaireront le rôle et l’efficacité des Programmes Cadres de Recherche et Développement dans les dynamiques régionales d’innovation mais également l’efficacité de la politique des Pôles de Compétitivité sur les performances des entreprises françaises en termes d’innovation, d’incitation à l’investissement privée, de création d’emploi et de compétitivité sur le marché.

The fact that innovative activity is remarkably concentrated in space, and in particular in cities, has motivated an important research effort to understand the spatial dimension of innovation, and the underlying mechanisms at work. While the literature has established the importance knowledge flows for location of innovation, the mechanisms through which they diffuse in space remain largely understudied. In particular, studies have insisted on the importance of skilled workers' mobility and the networked nature of knowledge production for innovation. Building on these considerations, this thesis investigates the role of skilled mobility in the diffusion of knowledge, and the resulting distribution of innovative activity. To answer this question, the thesis proceeds in three steps. The first chapter sets the conceptual framework and surveys the related literature. One of the main conclusion of this review is that some new economic geography and growth models provide a useful theoretical framework, because they recognize the importance of skilled mobility and knowledge externalities for the distribution of innovation. However, they fail to provide a reasonable answer to our research question for at least two reasons. First, the migration dynamics are very simplistic, and introducing heterogeneity in workers' characteristics and location preferences alters the cumulative mechanism of agglomeration. The second chapter provides a descriptive analysis on the patterns of inventors' mobility across urban areas, and their spatial dimension. Using these results, a spatial filtering gravity model is used to analyse formally how employment opportunities, professional networks and urban amenities, influence inventors' mobility flows. Second, these models do not consider workers' role in the diffusion of knowledge. The literature has established that skilled individuals influence the diffusion of knowledge by moving across organisation, creating network relationships and building absorptive capacities. The third chapter implements a spatial Durbin model to study these three mechanisms in an integrated framework. It is assumed that that mobility and networks provide access to knowledge, but the proportion of accessible knowledge used for innovation depends on absorptive capacity. These results have implications for the geography of innovation. While long-term mobility acts as a strong agglomeration force, the development of short-term, circular patterns of mobility should give rise to dispersion. The relative importance of these two effects is uncertain, because workers have different propensities and motivation to move, so that mobility patterns differ considerably. This should help explaining the persistence of long-run growth differentials among urban areas, and in a more dynamic setting, whether these gaps tend to widen or fall over time.; Le fait que les activités d'innovation soient très concentrées dans l'espace, et en particulier dans les villes, a motivé un effort de recherche important pour comprendre les dynamiques spatiales de l'innovation. Si les flux de connaissances sont largement reconnus comme un facteur déterminant de la géographie de l’innovation, les mécanismes par lesquels ils se diffusent dans l'espace demeurent méconnus. En particulier, la littérature souligne l'importance de la mobilité des travailleurs qualifiés et des réseaux de collaboration scientifique. Cette thèse examine le rôle de la mobilité qualifiée dans la diffusion des connaissances, ainsi que la distribution spatiale des activités d’innovation qui en résulte. Pour répondre à cette question, cette thèse procède en trois étapes. Le premier chapitre fournit un cadre conceptuel articulant trois courants de littérature dont la nouvelle économie géographique, les modèles de croissance endogène, ainsi que les contributions empiriques sur la géographie de l’innovation. Une des conclusions principales de ce chapitre est que les modèles alliant économie géographique et croissance endogène fournissent un cadre théorique pertinent, puisqu’ils reconnaissent le rôle de la mobilité qualifiée et des externalités de connaissances dans la répartition des activités d’innovation. Cependant, leurs conclusions demeurent incomplètes pour au moins deux raisons.Premièrement, les dynamiques de migration sont très simplistes, et l’introduction de travailleurs avec des caractéristiques et des préférences de localisation hétérogènes altère le mécanisme cumulatif à la base de l’agglomération. Le second chapitre analyse les trajectoires de mobilité des inventeurs entre les villes Européennes, ainsi que leur dimension spatiale. En utilisant ces résultats, un modèle de gravité avec filtres spatiaux est utilisé pour estimer formellement comment le marché du travail, les réseaux de collaborations ainsi que les aménités, influencent les flux de mobilité des inventeurs.Deuxièmement, ces modèles ne considèrent pas la mobilité qualifiées comme un mécanisme de diffusion des connaissances. La littérature empirique a établi que les individus qualifiés influencent les flux de connaissances par leur mobilité professionnelle, ainsi que par les réseaux de collaboration et la capacité d’absorption qui en résulte. Le troisième chapitre estime un modèle spatial de Durbin pour étudier ces trois mécanismes dans un cadre unifié. L'hypothèse sous-jacente est que la mobilité et les réseaux donnent accès aux connaissances externes, mais la proportion de ces connaissances utilisée pour l'innovation dépend de la capacité d'absorption.Ces résultats ont de nombreuses implications pour la géographie de l'innovation. Alors que la mobilité de long terme devrait constituer une force d'agglomération importante, le développement des mobilités de court terme ou circulaires constituent une force de dispersion. L'importance relative de ces deux effets demeure incertaine, car les choix de localisation sont hétérogènes, de sorte que les trajectoires de mobilité varient considérablement. Ces éléments pourraient fournir une explication partielle aux écarts de croissance entre les zones urbaines, et dans une perspective plus dynamique, si cette différence tend à s’accroître ou à se résorber au cours du temps.

The economie literature largely defends the existence of financial supports to private R&D owing to the numerous externalities and distortions that lead firms to underinvest in R&D. The proliferation of these supports at different territorial levels and the recent emergence of more constrasting arguments concerning their rationale underline an increasing need for the analysis of these policies and the ir territorial impacts. The purpose of this PhD thesis is to provide new elements regarding the rationale, the effects and the effectiveness of financial supports to private R&D.The first chapter proposes a discussion on the ratio na le of financial supports to business R&D following the endogenous growth literature and its refinements including a geographical dimension. Divergences in the theoretical and empirical approaches concerning the origins and the magnitude of the private underinvestment in R&D eventually leads to the hypothesis of a limited and specifie private underinvestment in R&D.Chapters 2 and 3 provide theoretical analyses of the spatial and dynamics effects of a centralized subsidy policy for R&D. The results show that this policy strengthens economie growth, reduces territorial inequalities while improving the global welfare. The benefits of such policy are not only dependent on the chosen assumption about returns to R&D but more importantly on its design in terms of funding and geographical allocation of subsidies.Chapter 4 provides an empirical analysis of the capacity of financial supports to R&D to stimulate private investment in R&D from a panel of OECD countries.The results indicate a greater sensitivity of private investment in R&D to indirect supports (fiscal incentives) than to direct supports (grants and subsidies) and suggest the existence of substitution effects between these two forms of support., La littérature économique défend l'existence d'aides publiques à la R&D privée du fait des nombreuses externalités et distorsions qui conduiraient les firmes à sous-investir en R&D. La multiplication de ces aides à différents échelons territoriaux et l'apparition d'éléments plus contrastés concernant leur justification soulignent un besoin accru d'analyse de ces politiques et de leurs conséquences territoriales. L'objet de cette thèse est d'apporter de nouveaux éléments concernant la rationalité, les effets et l'efficacité des aides financières à la R&D privée.Le premier chapitre propose une discussion de la rationalité des aides financières à la R&D à partir de la littérature sur la croissance endogène et ses raffinements incluant une dimension géographique. Le décalage entre les approchesthéoriques et les approches empiriques concernant les origines et l'ampleur du sous-investissement des firmes en R&D fait plutôt ressortir l'hypothèse d'un sous-investissement limité et spécifique.Les chapitres 2 et 3 fournissent des analyses théoriques des effets dynamiques et spatiaux d'une politique centralisée de subvention à la R&D. Les résultats montrent que cette politique renforce la croissance économique, réduit les inégalitésterritoriales et améliore le bien-être global. Les bienfaits de ce type de politique sont non seulement dépendants de l'hypothèse retenue concernant les rendements de la R&D mais surtout des options retenues concernant le financement et l'allocation géographique des subventions. Le chapitre 4 fournit une analyse empirique de la capacité des aides financièresà la R&D à stimuler l'investissement privé en R&D, à partir d'un panel de pays de l'OCDE. Les résultats indiquent une sensibilité plus forte des investissements privés en R&D aux aides indirectes (incitations fiscales) qu'aux aides directes (subventions) et suggèrent l'existence d'effets de substitution entre ces deux types d'aides.

The Framework Programs (FPs) are the European Union’s (EU’s) main tools for the promotion of research and innovation within the European territory. They both improve the competitiveness of European firms and promote the emergence of a European Research Area (ERA). Complex networks arise from the collaborations formed between the actors of research and innovation, through projects funded by the FPs. The objective of this thesis is first of all to show how network analysis provides an interesting perspective for a better understanding of FPs and then to assess the impact of innovation policies within the EU. This analysis will then enable an examination of the structural properties of collaborations formed under the FPs as well as a report on the determinants of collaborations within these programs. The work in this thesis focuses upon the Information Society Technology (IST) of the 6th FP. Two technological fields are used : Telecommunication and Electronics-Microelectronics.Initially, we study the networks formed by collaborations between two agents from selected technological fields and the aggregated network formed by these two fields of research. We study the general properties of these networks. We aim to verify whether or not these networks have the properties of “small-world networks”. This type of network is known in the literature to foster innovation networks. We also observe the characteristics of their evolution over time. Then, we study the agents which compose the networks and particularly we highlight the existence of “hubs”. We select the appropriate indicatorsand, where necessary, we develop new indicators as the strengthened degree for example. We conduct the analysis at both macroeconomic and microeconomic level. Finally, we construct networks which are aggregated at the regional level in order to study regional collaborations. Thus, it is possible to observe whether the FPs permit harmonious development within the EU and involve the construction of an ERA. In a second part, we study the determinants which may induce both agents to collaborate. We are particularly interested in agents who have experience in FPs. We study the role played by the traditional determinants as the means for R&D, geographical proximity,. In addition, we emphasize the role played by previous networks in collaboration choices. We study both the existence of collaboration between two agents and the intensity of these collaborations. Finally, in order to extend the analysis of the FPs, we study the formation of triads and particularly we show the existence of the phenomenon of “triadic closure”.; Les Programmes Cadres de Recherche et développement technologique (PCRDT) sont les principaux instruments dont dispose l’Union Européenne (UE) pour, d’une part favoriser la recherche et l’innovation sur le territoire européen et améliorer la compétitivité des firmes européennes, d’autre part faire émerger un Espace Européen de la Recherche (EER). Les collaborations formées entre les acteurs de la recherche et l’innovation, grâce aux projets financés par les PCRDT, forment des réseaux complexes. L’objectif de la thèse est de montrer de quelle manière l’analyse réseau constitue une perspective intéressante pour mieux appréhender les PCRDT et évaluer l’impact des politiques d’innovations de l’UE. Cette analyse permet à la fois d’examiner les propriétés de la structure des collaborations formées dans le cadre des PCRDT et de rendre comptedes déterminants des collaborations au sein de ces programmes. Les travaux menés dans la thèse portent sur deux domaines technologiques, issus de la thématique Information Society Technology (IST) du 6ème PCRDT et qui sont des domaines clés de l’innovation dans l’UE : les Télécommunications et l’Electronique-Microélectronique. Dans un premier temps, nous étudions les réseaux formés par les collaborations entre agents dans les deux domaines technologiques retenus ainsi que dans le réseau agrégé de ces deux domaines. Nous nous intéressons aux propriétés générales de ces réseaux et cherchonsà vérifier s’ils possèdent les propriétés des “small-world networks” reconnus dans la littérature comme des réseaux favorisant l’innovation. De plus, nous observons si ces réseaux évoluent de manière positive dans le temps. Après avoir étudié les réseaux de manière globale, nous nous intéressons aux agents qui composent le réseau en montrant notamment l’existence de “hubs”. Dans le cadre de cette analyse, nous sélectionnons les indcateurs adéquats et si nécessaire mettons ne place de nouveaux indicateurs comme le degré renforcé. Nous menons ainsi une analyse à deux niveaux : au niveau macroéconomiqueet au niveau microéconomique. Enfin, nous construisons des réseaux agrégés au niveau des régions afin de ne pas étudier seulement les réseaux de collaborations au niveau des agents mais aussi au niveau des territoires. De cette manière, il est possible d’observer dans quelle mesure les PCRDT impulsent un développement harmonieux de l’innovation au sein de l’UE.Dans un second temps, nous nous concentrons sur les déterminants qui peuvent inciter deux agents à collaborer. Pour cela, nous nous intéressons plus particulièrement aux agents qui ont déjà une expérience dans les PCRDT. Parmi ces déterminants, on retrouve ceux de la littérature traditionnelle comme les moyens en R&D, la proximité géographique,. . . En outre, nous mettons également en exergue le rôle prépondérant joué par les réseaux de la période précédente dans les choix de collaboration et la constitution des réseaux présents. Nous étudions à la fois l’existence d’une collaboration entre deux agents mais aussi l’intensité de ces collaborations. Enfin, afin d’approfondir l’analyse menée dans le cadre de collaborations bilatérales, nous étudions la formation de triades en cherchant à montrer l’existence du phénomène de “triadic closure” tout en observant le rôle joué par les déterminants cités précédemment.