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The purpose of this article is to assess how Islamic finance can act as a vehicle to enhance the current intellectual property rights regime in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Islamic finance has developed within the constraints of sharia law and has been a growth sector for the GCC. This article will identify the main principles of Islamic finance that contribute to the success of Islamic finance, which can enhance intellectual property protection in the GCC. The main sharia-compliant areas to be considered are musharaka, mudaraba, murabaha, takaful, istisna, ijara, salam and sukuk. The article will outline the founding principles of Islamic finance, the governance of sharia boards, development of Islamic finance in the individual GCC states, different frameworks of sharia-compliant investment products and the impact of intellectual property rights on the varying Islamic finance investment tools. Furthermore, the article will discuss an integrated approach to intellectual property rights which learns lessons from the Islamic finance sector in relation to infrastructure, regulation and sharia compliance. The lessons learnt from Islamic finance will inform the overall framework of recommendations for an Islamic intellectual property model. The use of Islamic finance as a vehicle to promote better intellectual property rights in terms of defining a new intellectual property approach is novel. It is aimed at spearheading further research in this area, and it will form a part of the overall integrated approach proposals to intellectual property protection in the GCC and beyond.

This chapter discusses the ethical considerations for a new model of intellectual property protection under sharia law principles in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. It identifies key sharia law principles and ethical issues during the foundation stage of the development of intellectual property in the (GCC) states. Due to no Quranic reference for intellectual property law, qiyas are considered relevant to Islamic justification for intellectual property protection as analogical reasoning is applied to Quranic rules on proprietary rights, contract law, international transactions and public interest to justify intellectual property rights. The chapter contributes an integrated approach to intellectual property in the GCC to inform a development stage that incorporates ethical sharia principles with western style intellectual property provisions to transform the Islamic economy beyond Islamic finance.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to examine the transatlantic trade and investment partnership (TTIP). The EU and the USA are negotiating the TTIP, a trade agreement that aims to remove trade barriers across different economic sectors to increase trade between the EU and the USA. The TTIP will have spill over effects on the MENA region, the GCC, Australia and the Asian sub-continent, as it raises key questions for intellectual property and international trade agreements. For instance, will the USA and EU be on an equal footing or will one triumph over the other, will third party countries like the GCC states be expected to adopt new standards. Design/methodology/approach The research design is a paper and online data collection method to find literature to date on intellectual property law development in the GCC states in relation to the three research objectives as set out above. The literature is the population, and this could prove problematic. Different databases have been used to cover all sources where data can be found. Findings As the EU-USA TTIP is aiming to conclude by the end of 2015, the GCC has an opportunity to reassess its relationship with both the EU and GCC. Up until now, the GCC was able to enter into negotiations with the EU and USA relatively independently. However, where the EU and USA can agree, there will be a harmonisation of regulations. This therefore has repercussions for the GCC. The TTIP has three main aims: to increase trade and investment through market access, increase employment and competitiveness and create a harmonised approach to global trade. To harmonise global trade, the EU and USA aim to harmonise their intellectual property rights through an intellectual property rights chapter that deals specifically with enhancing protection and recognition for geographical indications, build on TRIPS and patentability. Research limitations/implications This study is non-empirical. Originality/value The TTIP will have spill over effects for the GCC, as it has yet to finalise the EU-GCC free trade agreement and USA-GCC framework agreement. The power dynamics between the USA and EU will be a deciding factor on the intellectual property chapter in the TTIP in terms of what the provisions for intellectual property will look like and what powers will be available to investors to bring investor-state-dispute settlement claims against foreign countries.

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis Group in International Review of Law, Computers & Technology, on 22 February 2017, available online at http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13600869.2017.1275275. The Accepted Manuscript is under embargo. Embargo end date: 22 August 2018.

The lipase from Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 was partially purified by fractional precipitation using 60% ammonium sulfate, which resulted in a 8.33-fold purification. The partially purified lipase was then immobilized using different immobilization techniques: physical adsorption, ionic binding, and entrapment. Entrapment in a 4% agar proved to be the most suitable technique (82% yield), as the immobilized lipase was more stable at acidic and alkaline pHs than the free enzyme, plus 100% of the original activity was retained owing to the thermal stability of the immobilized enzyme after heat treatment for 60 min at 45 degrees Celsius. The calculated half-lives (472.5, 433.12, and 268.5 min at 50, 55, and 60 degrees Celsius, respectively) and the activation energy (9.85 kcal/mol) for the immobilized enzyme were higher than those for the free enzyme. Under the selected conditions, the immobilized enzyme had a higher K(m) (11.11 mM) and lower V(max) (105.26 U/mg protein) when compared with the free enzyme (8.33 mM and 125.0 U/mg protein, respectively). The operational stability of the biocatalyst was tested for both the hydrolysis of triglycerides and esterification of fatty acids with glycerol. After 4 cycles, the immobilized lipase retained approximately 50% and 80% of its original activity in the hydrolysis and esterification reactions, respectively.

Microorganisms have been screened for biotransformational activity against diosgenin or its precursor furostanol glycosides obtained from fenugreek seed (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Using diosgenin as the substrate, Cunninghamella elegans and Aspergillus nidulans produced some androstenes when α,α′-dipyridyl was supplemented to the transformation medium. Also, using the glycosides as a substrate, Rhizopus sp. produced diosgenin in >90% yield from the glycoside. The parameters were optimized to increase the yield of the androstenes.

Pseudomonas fluorescens cells, which convert hydrocortisone to prednisolone, was entrapped in poly-hydroxy ethylmethacrylate (Poly-HEMA) which was prepared by radiation polymerization at low temperature. Using pure poly-HEMA without cross-linking monomer agents increases prednisolone yield to 43.9% compared with the yield produced using polymerized HEMA mixed with N , N ′-methylene-bis-acrylamide (36.9%) or 0.1 and 0.2 ml of divinely benzene (39.6 and 26.0%, respectively). Maximal prednisolone productivity (1.83 mg/l/h) was attained using 20 kGy γ-irradiation for polymerization of HEMA and this was accompanied by lowest productivity of the 20β-hydroxy-derivative. Prednisolone yield reached 59.8% on increasing the water content of HEMA before polymerization. Maximum prednisolone yield and productivity without formation of 20β-hydroxy-derivative (64.1 and 2.67 mg/l/h) were recorded using poly-HEMA polymer loaded with 24 h old Ps. fluorescens cells after a 24 h transformation period. The maximum bioconversion efficiency was obtained at a substrate concentration of 20 mg/100 ml medium. Poly-HEMA immobilized Ps. fluorescens cells can be repeatedly used about 12 cycles with gradual increase in the prednisolone yield (76.5–84.3%) by repeated use for 7 times.

The Δ1-dehydrogenase activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens was noticeably enhanced (1.3-fold) in the presence of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), and the prednisolone yield was increased 1.2-fold in the presence of H2O2 (0.6 ml/l). Macroelement (K+, Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+) stimulated the production of prednisolone at different concentrations. The production of prednisolone at 64.7% yield was achieved when the culture medium was supplemented with 0.6 g/l NaCl at the time of substrate addition. The addition of MnSO4·H2O and FeCl3·6H2O (0.06 g/l) increased the capacity of the tested organism to transform cortisol (1.3- and 1.2-fold, respectively). No significant increase of prednisolone yield was shown using 1 g/l sodium citrate or sodium benzoate, while sodium acetate or sodium oxalate in the same concentration inhibited the Δ1-dehydrogenation of cortisol. Optimum substrate concentration was 5 mg/50 ml, while increasing the concentration of cortisol substrate to 50 mg/50 ml reduced the prednisolone yield.

The lipase from Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 was partially purified by fractional precipitation using 60% ammonium sulfate, which resulted in a 8.33-fold purification. The partially purified lipase was then immobilized using different immobilization techniques: physical adsorption, ionic binding, and entrapment. Entrapment in a 4% agar proved to be the most suitable technique (82% yield), as the immobilized lipase was more stable at acidic and alkaline pHs than the free enzyme, plus 100% of the original activity was retained owing to the thermal stability of the immobilized enzyme after heat treatment for 60 min at 45 degrees Celsius. The calculated half-lives (472.5, 433.12, and 268.5 min at 50, 55, and 60 degrees Celsius, respectively) and the activation energy (9.85 kcal/mol) for the immobilized enzyme were higher than those for the free enzyme. Under the selected conditions, the immobilized enzyme had a higher K(m) (11.11 mM) and lower V(max) (105.26 U/mg protein) when compared with the free enzyme (8.33 mM and 125.0 U/mg protein, respectively). The operational stability of the biocatalyst was tested for both the hydrolysis of triglycerides and esterification of fatty acids with glycerol. After 4 cycles, the immobilized lipase retained approximately 50% and 80% of its original activity in the hydrolysis and esterification reactions, respectively.

The ability of different locally isolated fungi to transform cortisol to its Δ1-dehydro derivative (prednisolone) was investigated. The desired reaction was performed by some organisms; namely, Fusarium oxysporum 153, F. moniliforme 2 and 157, F. solani, Gliocladium sp., and Helminthosporium speciferum. Reduction of the 20-keto group of prednisolone was observed with F. oxysporum 153, F. moniliforme 2, and Gliocladium sp.Study of the convertibility of cortisol with the most active fungus (F. oxysporum 153) revealed the existence of Δ1-dehydrogenase and 20β-keto reductase systems which exhibit different velocities and activities. The dehydrogenation reaction proceeds faster during the early stages of fermentation, while the reductase system attains its maximal activity at later stages of the transformation period.

Attention was devoted to the delignification of the crude bagasse (CB) and cotton stalks (CS) by cheap commercial sodium hypochlorite solution. Optimum delignification of these substrates was achieved by treatment with 0·7 g Cl g −1 substrate (pH 7·0) for 20 h at room temperature, with a solid: liquid (S:L) ratio 1:20. The delignified CB and CS were saccharified with an enzyme preparation from a potent local mutant of Trichoderma viride (253-M16). A satisfactory saccharification was obtained with most of the treatments used. The highest conversion yield (93%) was recorded with CB treated with sodium hypochlorite solution (S:L ratio 1:20), followed by NaOH (0·05 m ).

Summary The ability of five different local fungi to synthesize ergoline-alkaloids was studied. High alkaloid production was confined to a strain of Cunninghamella blakesleana where 0.13 % alkaloids were formed. TLC analysis of the alkaloids produced by the different organisms showed that Sepdonium sp., C. blakesleana, and Curvularia lunata could synthesize both peptidetype and clavine alkaloids. The identity of each individual peptide type alkaloid was confirmed by acid hydrolysis and by identification of the liberated amino acids.

The resolution of different steroids on a thin-layer plate with a large number of solvent systems was investigated. These steroids are of the pregnene models differing in the number and position of the double bond, and ketone and hydroxyl groups. The mobility of these steroids on the plate with the most suitable solvent systems (9 different systems) was described. The characteristic colours of the tested steroids upon using different colour reagents are also given. The results of these studies may be of importance to workers interested in the field of microbiological transformation of steroids; especially those concerned with the study of dehydrogenation reactions.

The saccharification of crude bagasse (CB) with enzyme preparations of a potent local mutant Trichoderma viride (253-M16) was considerably improved by pretreating CB under a variety of conditions. Simple treatment of CB with 1% NaOH for 10 h at room temperature allowed the hydrolysis of about 12% of this bagasse after 6 days incubation. However, the saccharification yield was raised to about 54% when the alkali-treated bagasse was hydrolysed by 50% ammonium sulphate precipitated enzyme fraction. Further improvement (90% conversion estimate) was obtained using bagasse samples treated with sodium chlorite/NaOH and hydrolysed with 70% ammonium sulphate precipitated fraction. A similar high conversion yield was also recorded using H2SO4—sodium chlorite treated bagasse.

The enzymatic transformation of cortisol with Bacillus cereus was examined in the presence of some redox agents and enzyme inhibitors. At the early phases of fermentation, the enzymic 1, 2-dehydrogenation reaction of cortisol was highly accelerated in the presence of oxidized glutathione. Thereafter, the enzymic reduction of the 20-keto group of cortisol and prednisolone was noticeably enhanced. In the presence of reduced glutathione, prednisolone was quantitatively converted to the 20β-hydroxy derivative. The bioconversion of cortisol to prednisolone, 20β-hydroxycortisol, and 20β-hydroxyprednisolone was also activated in the presence of azide and cyanide. With iodoacetate, the 1, 2-dehydrogenation reaction was promoted while the 20-keto reduction was markedly repressed.Pretreatment of the bacterial cells with various C19 and C21 steroids as well as with cholesterol affected the transformation pattern in different manners. The 1, 2-dehydrogenation reaction of cortisol was considerably induced when the cells were pretreated with Δ1-dehydroprogesterone, Δ1, 4-androstadienedione, and Δ1-dehydrotestosterone.

Yeast or beef extracts stimulated fungal growth and protein content of the fungal mats but percentage of total lipids was not enhanced except at 0·4% concentration of either extract. Concentrations of corn steep liquor ranging from 0·2% to 1% enhanced growth and protein content, but all experimental concentrations from 0·2% to 1·2% reduced the percentage of total lipids. Different concentrations of treated molasses were unsuitable for mycelial growth. However, total lipids were remarkably high at molasses concentrations of 8% and 9%. Total proteins were very high in the mycelium raised on treated molasses media. Treated molasses medium of 8% concentration, fortified by 1% corn steep liquor, stimulated mycelial growth and lipid formation. Total proteins of the mycelial mats increased with increase of concentration of corn steep liquor up to 0·5%, after which their value decreased but was still very high compared with the control. The highest percentages (9·18% and 6·12%) of both total and combined sterols were obtained when Pruess medium was fortified with 0·4% of corn steep liquor. The highest free sterols percentage (4·02%) was obtained with 0·2% liquor.

Examination of different species of local fungi, grown on two nutritive solutions of different composition, for alkaloid formation was investigated. The formation of alkaloids was confined to four species, namely: Geotrichum candidum, Mucor hiemalis, Aspergillus flavus and Rhizopus nigricans. A comparative study of the growth as well as the formation of alkaloids by these species and by Claviceps purpurea NRRL was carried out. Methods were also described with which the different alkaloids produced by the experimental strains were identified. Peptides as well as clavine type alkaloids were detected in all cases except with Mucor hiemalis where a compound corresponding to ergosine was the only alkaloid present.