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Mother-child emotion-related conversations, as a practice of parental socialization of emotion, can help children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) develop socio-emotional skills. This study intends to explore relationships between mother-child conversations about emotions and socio-emotional skills of children with ASD by accounting for the moderating role of children personality traits and mothers' emotional openness. Mothers of children with ASD (n = 49) responded to five questionnaires describing their conversations about emotions, emotional openness as well as their child's socio-emotional skills and personality. We conducted hierarchical regression and moderation analyses. Our findings indicate that frequent mother-child conversations about emotions significantly predict higher emotional regulation and Theory of Mind (ToM) abilities in children with ASD (p < 0.05). Moreover, children's consciousness and openness to experience, along with mothers' emotional openness significantly moderate the relation between mother--child conversations about emotions and children's ToM skills (p < 0.05). Mother-child conversations about emotions, as a practice of parental socialization of emotion, could be beneficial for children with ASD. Children's personality traits and mothers' openness to emotion may act as a protective factor of ToM skills in children with ASD.

Mother-child emotion-related conversations, as a practice of parental socialization of emotion, can help children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) develop socio-emotional skills. This study intends to explore relationships between mother-child conversations about emotions and socio-emotional skills of children with ASD by accounting for the moderating role of children personality traits and mothers' emotional openness. Mothers of children with ASD (n = 49) responded to five questionnaires describing their conversations about emotions, emotional openness as well as their child's socio-emotional skills and personality. We conducted hierarchical regression and moderation analyses. Our findings indicate that frequent mother-child conversations about emotions significantly predict higher emotional regulation and Theory of Mind (ToM) abilities in children with ASD (p < 0.05). Moreover, children's consciousness and openness to experience, along with mothers' emotional openness significantly moderate the relation between mother-child conversations about emotions and children's ToM skills (p < 0.05). Mother-child conversations about emotions, as a practice of parental socialization of emotion, could be beneficial for children with ASD. Children's personality traits and mothers' openness to emotion may act as a protective factor of ToM skills in children with ASD., Author(s): Marie-Joëlle Beaudoin [sup.1] , Nathalie Poirier [sup.1] , Nathalie Nader-Grosbois [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.38678.32, 0000 0001 2181 0211, Université du Québec à Montréal, , C.P. 8888, Succursale Centre-Ville, [...]

In two experimental and exploratory studies, we wanted to test the differentiated effects on preschoolers with externalizing behavior (EB) of two short-term social information processing (SIP) and Theory of Mind (ToM) training sessions, in comparison with typically developing (TD) preschoolers or with preschoolers with EB whom didn't receive training. Firstly, nineteen preschoolers presenting a high level of EB problems took part in a pre-test session involving direct cognitive and socio-cognitive measures (assessing the understanding of emotions, beliefs and social problem-solving). They were then allocated at random to two experimental groups (ToM or SIP training) and compared to nineteen TD preschoolers who followed the same procedure. Four experimental groups, EB-ToM group (n = 9), TD-ToM group (n = 9), EB-SIP group (n = 10), TD SIP-group (n = 10), received short training sessions, which were given by group of three children. All children took part in a post-test session. Secondly, EB-ToM group (n=9) and EB-SIP group (n = 10) was compared to a control group of preschoolers with EB problems (n = 9). These preschoolers took part in pre-test and post-test sessions. Firstly, we tested whether the effectiveness of the training was specific to children with EB compared to TD children. Although improvement was obtained in typically developing children, larger improvements were found in the population with EB. Secondly, we compared the potential transfer of learning between the two types of experimental training in children with EB problems. Results showed some improvement in ToM and in SIP for both experimental groups. These studies provide some guidelines for training in social cognition aimed at preschoolers who are at risk of or have developed EB disorders

In an experimental design, we examined the effects of middle-term training in social information processing (SIP) and in Theory of Mind (ToM) on preschoolers' social cognition and social adjustment. 48 preschoolers took part in a pre-test and post-test session involving cognitive, socio-cognitive and social adjustment (direct and indirect) measures. They were allocated at random to an experimental group (subgroups of 4 children attended 15 45-minute sessions in which they received ToM and SIP training using educational materials) or a control group (free play sessions). The results showed that each group improved in direct measures of social cognition. The experimental group was significantly better at the SIP task in post-test than the control group. Significant correlations were obtained between individual and family characteristics and direct measures. Furthermore, regression analyses showed that, after controlling for pre-test result, SIP measures in post-test were significantly predicted by pre-test results and group condition. This study could help professionals and parents by providing them with some basis for early training exercises that can induce an improvement in SIP competences in preschoolers.

Using an experimental approach, our study examined the differentiated effects on pre-schoolers' social cognition of two short-term social information processing (SIP) and Theory of Mind (ToM) training sessions dealing with emotions and beliefs. The links between ToM, SIP, and social adjustment or externalizing behavior were examined. 47 pre-schoolers took part in a pretest session involving cognitive, socio-cognitive and social adjustment measures. The direct socio-cognitive measures involved tasks assessing emotion recognition, ToM emotions, ToM beliefs and social problem-solving. The teachers filled out a personality questionnaire and parents completed the Theory of Mind Inventory, a social adjustment scale and the CBCL. Secondly, they were allocated at random to two experimental groups (ToM training or SIP training) or to a control group. In the experimental groups, each of three children, short training sessions were given using educational materials. Free play was offered in the control group. Finally, all children took part in a post-test session. Our results showed significant improvement in ToM emotions for the ToM training group, in ToM beliefs for the SIP training group, and in social problem-solving for both experimental groups, and some transfer learning. In pretest, significant positive correlations were obtained between social cognition measures and individual characteristics, and between social cognition measures and social adjustment. Significant negative correlations were observed between social adjustment and externalizing behavior, and between social adjustment and emotional reactivity. This study provided some guidelines for formulating a medium-term training program in social cognition aimed at pre-schoolers at risk of displaying externalizing behavior disorders.

This study has examined the link between social information processing (SIP) and socio-emotional regulation (SER) in 45 children with intellectual disability (ID) and 45 typically developing (TD) children, matched on their developmental age. A Coding Grid of SER, focusing on Emotional Expression, Social Behaviour and Behaviours towards Social Rules displayed by children in three dyadic contexts (neutral, competitive or cooperative) was applied. Correlational analyses highlighted specific "bi-directional" links between some abilities in SIP and in SER, presenting between-groups partial similarities and dissimilarities that allowed discussing the developmental delay versus difference hypotheses in ID children. Cluster cases analyses identified subgroups with variable patterns of links. In both groups, the SIP and some categories of SER varied depending on developmental age.

Perceived social acceptance, theory of mind (ToM) and social adjustment were investigated in 45 children with intellectual disabilities (ID) compared with 45 typically developing (TD) preschoolers, matched for developmental age assessed by means of the Differential Scales of Intellectual Efficiency-Revised edition (EDEI-R, Perron-Borelli, 1996). Children's understanding of beliefs and emotions was assessed by means of ToM belief tasks (Nader-Grosbois & Thirion-Marissiaux, 2011) and ToM emotion tasks (Nader-Grosbois & Thirion-Marissiaux, 2011). Seven items from the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for children (PSPCSA, Harter & Pike, 1980) assessed children's perceived social acceptance. Their teachers completed the Social Adjustment for Children Scale (EASE, Hughes, Soares-Boucaud, Hochmann, & Frith, 1997). For both groups together, the results showed that perceived social acceptance mediates the relation between ToM skills and social adjustment. The presence or absence of intellectual disabilities does not moderate the relations either between ToM skills and perceived social acceptance, or between perceived social acceptance and social adjustment. The study did not confirm the difference hypothesis of structural and relational patterns between these three processes in children with ID, but instead supported the hypothesis of a similar structure that develops in a delayed manner. (Contains 1 figure and 4 tables.)

This study compared mothers and fathers' regulation with respect to 29 children with intellectual disability (ID) and 30 typically developing (TD) children, matched on their mental age (MA), as they solved eight tasks using physical materials and computers. Seven parents' regulatory strategies were coded as they supported their child's identification of the objective, planning, attention, motivation, joint attention, behaviour regulation and evaluation. Children's performance was scored. Regulation by the parents of the two groups did not differ significantly, regardless of the medium, except that the degree of parental regulation of the child's behaviour was greater in the ID group than in the TD group. In tasks involving the computer, we observed a higher degree of regulation of children's planning and a lower degree of regulation of their evaluation for the two groups. The parents displayed significantly less regulation with respect to the children with the highest MA than towards the children with the lowest MA, in each group. There was a significant interaction effect of medium and children's MA on overall parents' regulation and on their support of identification of objective and of planning. Most parental strategies were negatively linked with ID and TD children's performance in tasks. In both groups, with control for MA, parental support with the identification of the objective, with planning and with attention was negatively linked to the corresponding self-regulatory strategies of the children with each medium; however, parents' joint attention was positively linked with children's joint attention. (Contains 6 tables.)

This study compares self-regulation in 29 children with intellectual disability and 30 typically developing children, who solved tasks using physical materials or computers. Their cognitive, linguistic levels were assessed in order to match the children of both groups. In the presence of their mothers and fathers, the children were asked to perform eight tasks presented using two types of medium (physical materials and computer). Performance and task completion time were recorded. Seven self-regulated strategies were analyzed: identification of objective, planning, self-attention, self-motivation, joint attention, behaviour regulation and self-evaluation. Children in the two groups did not differ in their self-regulation, and in each group, their chronological age had no significant effect on their self-regulation. However, whatever the medium used, their mental age had a significant effect on their overall self-regulation and on six self-regulated strategies: identification of objective, planning, self-attention, self-motivation, behaviour regulation, and self-evaluation. A positive link between overall self-regulation and language abilities was only obtained in the group of typical developers. In addition, although no significant effect of the medium on overall self-regulation was observed in each group, an effect of the type of medium was obtained concerning three specific self-regulated strategies, though not in the same direction: self-attention and self-evaluation are better with the computer than with physical materials, whereas joint attention is better with physical materials than with the computer. In both groups, overall self-regulation, whatever the medium, correlated positively and highly significantly with performance in different tasks (but not with completion time). In each group, variable correlational patterns were obtained between specific self-regulated strategies and performance in each task with each medium: inter-task variability of efficiency of distinct strategies was observed. (Contains 8 tables.)

Patterns of development of ToM belief abilities in intellectually disabled (ID) children and typically developing (TD) children matched on their developmental age were investigated. The links between cognition, language, social understanding and ToM belief abilities were examined. EDEI-R [Perron-Borelli M. (1996). "Echelles Differentielles d'Efficiences Intellectuelles. Forme Revisee (EDEI-R)." Paris: Editions et Applications Psychologiques.] was used to match participants and to assess social understanding. ECOSSE [Lecocq P. (1996). "L'E.CO.S.SE. Une epreuve de comprehension syntaxico-semantique." Paris: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion.] assessed the level of syntactic and semantic comprehension of French speaking, to ensure a good comprehension of the questions in false belief tasks. Five tasks assessed the ability in visual perspective taking and in understanding of false belief. A difference in the global ToM ability was found between both groups (difference hypothesis in ID participants). Specific abilities in different ToM tasks showed developmental patterns partially different and partially similar, between ID and TD groups. The interest to assess the understanding of belief by means of several tasks is confirmed. Positive links between cognition, language and ToM abilities were found in both groups, but the impact of cognition and language on abilities in each ToM task is different in both groups. Finally, the specific impact of social understanding and of chronological age on abilities in false belief in ID group is discussed. (Contains 9 tables.)

Dysregulation of activity linked with development was analysed in 12 children with intellectual disabilities (ID) and in 12 children with autism (ASD) matched on their developmental age (18 months). The "Batterie d'Evaluation du Developpement Cognitif et Social" [Adrien, J. L. (1996). "Autisme du jeune enfant. Developpement psychologique et regulation de l'activite" ["Autism in the young child: Psychological development and behavioral regulation"]. Paris: Expansion Scientifique Francaise] and the [left angle quote]Regulation Disorders Evaluation Grid[right angle quote] [Adrien, J. L., Rossignol-Deletang, N., Martineau, J., Couturier, G., & Barthelemy, C. (2001). Regulation on cognitive activity and early communication development in young autistic, mentally retarded, and young normal children. "Developmental Psychobiology," 39(2), 124-136] were used. T-test comparisons, partial correlation controlling for chronological age and clusters analyses by cases were completed. Children with ASD showed more dysregulation than ID children and both groups showed different patterns of specific dysregulation disorders. Dysregulation of activity was linked to development but correlations were much more numerous and intense within ASD group compared to ID group.

This study investigated the symbolic behavior and the self-regulation in dyads of children with intellectual disability and of normally developing children. Specifically, these processes were studied in link with the children's characteristics (mental age, linguistic level, individual pretend play level). The sample included 80 participants, 40 children with intellectual disability and 40 normally developing children, matched according to their mental age, ranged from 3 to 6 years old. First, a developmental assessment was performed (about cognitive, language and pretend play dimensions); then, in peers dyads, the children were elicited to pretend play by means of four kinds of material referring to four types of scripts (tea party, doctor, transportation, substitute objects eliciting creativity). The average symbolic behavior in individual and dyadic play contexts did not differ in both groups, but the average self-regulation in the group with intellectual disability was lower than in the normally developing group. Some positive partial correlations were obtained between mental age, language abilities, individual pretend play, dyadic pretend play and several self-regulatory strategies in both groups although they varied in importance between groups. Clusters analyses showed that individual and dyadic pretend play explained self-regulation in children of both groups. Specifically, in both groups, the higher was symbolic behavior in creativity context, the higher was self-regulation. (Contains 8 tables.)

This study has explored the parents' regulation strategies that were more likely to support children's self-regulation in learning situations with computers. These strategies have been analysed by means of new grids involving seven categories of behaviour: cognitive strategies relating to identification of objective, exploration of means, attention and evaluation; motivational strategies; and socio-communicative strategies such as joint attention and request. 62 7-year-old children from Quebec families were examined with their mothers and fathers. The children were asked to complete two learning tasks that involved using LOGO software to draw a picture. Results indicated that parents' regulation varied depending on their gender; a higher directivity was observed in mothers, more specifically through some specific strategies. Analysis of variance on repeated measures showed that, during the session, there was a decrease in the specification of the objective, the initiation of joint attention and of behaviour regulation in parents; and an improvement of the identification of the objective, planning and self-evaluation in children. Correlations between parental regulation and children's self-regulation strategies indicated positive links concerning strategies relating to joint attention and to motivation; and negative links concerning strategies relating to the exploration of means and evaluation. A good adjustment of the parents' regulation and the children's self-regulation correlated positively with success in the task. Methodological implications are proposed for research and psycho-educative intervention. (Contains 5 tables.)

Patterns of development of ToM-emotion abilities in intellectually disabled (ID) children and typically developing (TD) children matched on their developmental age were investigated. The links between cognition, language, social understanding and ToM-emotion abilities were examined. EDEI-R (Perron-Borelli, M. (1996). "Echelles Differentielles d'Efficiences Intellectuelles. Forme Revisee (EDEI-R)". Paris: Editions et Applications Psychologiques) was used to match participants and to assess social understanding. ECOSSE (Lecocq, P. (1996). "L'E.CO.S.SE. Une epreuve de comprehension syntaxico-semantique". Paris: Presses Universitaires du Septentrion) assessed the level of syntactic and semantic comprehension of French speaking, to ensure a good comprehension of the questions in ToM-emotion tasks. Adapted tasks of the understanding of causes and consequences of emotions (Quintal, G. (2001). "La comprehension des emotions chez les enfants d'age prescolaire dans le cadre d'une theorie de l'esprit". Un-published master's thesis, University of Montreal, Quebec) assessed ToM-emotion abilities (Nader-Grosbois, N., Thirion-Marissiaux, A.-F., & Grosbois, M. (2003). "Adapted tests for assessment of the Theory of Mind of causes and consequences of emotions (unpublished documents)". Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium). Similarities in the development of ToM-emotion abilities and social understanding were found, respectively, in both groups (delay hypothesis in ID participants). Some differences between groups were observed in the links between social understanding and ToM-emotion abilities. Significant correlations between developmental characteristics (verbal and non-verbal cognition) and ToM-emotion abilities were obtained for both groups. Verbal cognition explained an important part of the variance of ToM results (understanding of causes and consequences of emotions). The impact of chronological age on ToM-emotion abilities was also examined and is discussed. (Contains 7 tables.)

This study has examined the link between social information processing (SIP) and socio-emotional regulation (SER) in 45 children with intellectual disability (ID) and 45 typically developing (TD) children, matched on their developmental age. A Coding Grid of SER, focusing on Emotional Expression, Social Behaviour and Behaviours towards Social Rules displayed by children in three dyadic contexts (neutral, competitive or cooperative) was applied. Correlational analyses highlighted specific 'bi-directional' links between some abilities in SIP and in SER, presenting between-groups partial similarities and dissimilarities that allowed discussing the developmental delay versus difference hypotheses in ID children. Cluster cases analyses identified subgroups with variable patterns of links. In both groups, the SIP and some categories of SER varied depending on developmental age. Keywords Theory of mind * Social problem-solving * Emotion regulation * Dyadic play * Intellectual disability, Introduction This study has examined the link between abilities in theory of mind-emotions (ToM), in socio-emotional problem-solving (SEPS) and the socio-emotional regulation (SER) in children with intellectual disability (ID) compared [...]