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The use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to preserve and promote cultural heritage has experienced significant growth in recent years. Among the various areas of cultural heritage, numismatics have emerged as a particularly promising field where we can develop AI solutions. Numismatics refers to the study of coins, tokens, paper money, and medals, which play a critical role in understanding human history and culture. However, there are still limited resources available to help researchers and collectors in the identification of coins. This is due to the vast number of coins in circulation, which presents a significant challenge in developing smart tools for classification tasks. This paper aims to provide a contribution to this setting. In particular, we start by creating a new dataset called EURO-Coin, which consists of images showing the side of coins with reliefs and is designed to facilitate the training and testing of AI models for euro coin classification. Then, we propose two approaches that leverage Convolutional Neural Networks and self-attention layers to classify the country and value of the coins. In our experiments, we obtain an accuracy of 86.9% for country classification and an accuracy of 96.4% for value classification. Finally, we conduct an ablation study to evaluate the impact of the preprocessing activities and attention layers in our approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article deals with the imitations of copper Jochid coins of the XIV century that have signs of silvering and gilding, imitating coins of the state «New Sarai» type with the image of a «double-headed bird» («double-headed eagle»). The author has established that they are not unique (their issue was serial). Hypotheses about the reasons for the appearance, methods of production, possible purpose and region of minting of silvered and gilded imitations of Jochid copper coins are put forward and analyzed.The most reasonable assumptions are that metal raw materials were used in their production, which were copper products coated with silver and gold (ware, plates, etc.). This practice could be due to a shortage of ordinary copper raw materials. The considered numismatic monuments were probably minted in the former Bolgar lands within the Jochid State («Ulus of Bolgar » or « Vilayat of Bolgar ») and were intended for local circulation.

The history of the rise, prosperity, decline and heritage of the Golden Horde has been in the center of attention of Russian and foreign specialists for many decades. In the XIV century the power of the khans of the Golden Horde covered the territory of a large part of modern Russia (except for Eastern Siberia, the Far East and the Far North), northern and western Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Moldova, part of Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The modern Penza region territory was part of the Mukhsha Ulus, the northwestern district of the Golden Horde, bordering the Principality of Ryazan. Trade caravans to Rus and back from Bolgar, the Lower Volga cities and Khwarazm moved through the region. The study of archaeological sites of the Golden Horde period in the Penza Oblast began in the late XIX and continued in the early XX century. V.M. Teryokhin, A.A. Spitsyn, I.F. Sadin and A.A. Krotkov were the fi rst to identify the scientific potential of the Narovchat settlement and the nearby burial grounds for future generations of archaeologists and historians. Later, new settlements of the Golden Horde period, trade routes were found, and artifacts – jewelry, ceramics, numismatic finds were studied. Research results over the past thirty years were presented in scientifi c articles by G.N. Belorybkin, V.A. Vinnichek and K.M. Vinnichek, O.V. Golubev, Yu.A. Zeleneyev, E.D. Zilivinskaya, and O.V. Melnichenko. The study of already discovered and the search for new Golden Horde archaeological sites continues.

Clustering in high-dimensions poses many statistical challenges. While traditional distance-based clustering methods are computationally feasible, they lack probabilistic interpretation and rely on heuristics for estimation of the number of clusters. On the other hand, probabilistic model-based clustering techniques often fail to scale and devising algorithms that are able to effectively explore the posterior space is an open problem. Based on recent developments in Bayesian distance-based clustering, we propose a hybrid solution that entails defining a likelihood on pairwise distances between observations. The novelty of the approach consists in including both cohesion and repulsion terms in the likelihood, which allows for cluster identifiability. This implies that clusters are composed of objects which have small dissimilarities among themselves (cohesion) and similar dissimilarities to observations in other clusters (repulsion). We show how this modeling strategy has interesting connection with existing proposals in the literature. The proposed method is computationally efficient and applicable to a wide variety of scenarios. We demonstrate the approach in simulation and an application in digital numismatics. with code is available online. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the winter semester 2023/24, the authors of this article taught the seminar "Playful Numismatics. Computer game-based knowledge transfer of Roman coinage". The aim of the interdisciplinary course between the fields of Classical Archaeology/Ancient Numismatics and the Master's profile Digital Humanities was to develop computer games using the RPG Maker MV application. The games impart knowledge about Roman coinage and relevant background information about the Roman world in a playful way and at a low-threshold level for a broad audience. This paper presents the workflow of the project and the project's outcomes and discusses the potentials of serious games for teaching ancient numismatics in university context and to transmit knowledge about ancient coinage beyond academia to a non-specialist public audience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An inscription in the name of a Kushan king, Wima Takto (circa 90–113 CE), has recently been discovered by the archaeologist Muhsin Bobomulloev of the National Museum of Tajikistan and his colleagues. The new inscription, found in the Almosi Gorge with other inscriptions in an 'unknown script', confirms the identity of Wima Takto, the second king of the Kushan Dynasty, which ruled a large territory stretching from Central Asia to North India in the first four centuries CE. The history of this dynasty is pieced together from inscriptions, coins, and archaeology, and fleeting references in Chinese sources. Each new inscription adds another piece to the jigsaw of Kushan history, revealing a powerful state in control of the central lands of the ancient Silk Road. This article positions the new inscription within the current understanding of Kushan history and the status of Wima Takto. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coin finds retrieved from the excavation areas at Ḥorbat Sahar range in date from the Roman to the Mamluk periods, partially aligning with the settlement periods identified at the site. A bronze coin of Elagabalus, struck in Abila, depicts on its reverse a sanctuary with a hexastyle facade flanked by two towers with a large altar in the center. This is an important addition to our limited knowledge of this coin-type's circulation in sites west of the Jordan River. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coins found in the excavation at Naṣr ed-Din tell of two peaks of settlement at the site: in the second century BCE and in the second century CE. The coins suggest that the site became Jewish in the first century BCE, was reduced or abandoned in the first century CE and revived in the second century CE, still as a Jewish village. The numismatic evidence does not support the identification of the site with Bet Ma'on, mentioned by Josephus and in the Talmud; however, one must consider that the site is large and the data presented here pertain only to the limited area that was excavated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The excavation at Aderet, located south of Ha-Ella Valley, revealed a farmhouse with an olive-oil press, which operated under the administrative control of Idumea during the Hellenistic period. Based on the numismatic evidence and the pottery assemblage, the Aderet farmhouse was dated to the second half of the third century BCE, possibly extending into the beginning of the second century BCE. The firmly dated regional ceramic assemblage of the third century BCE expands our knowledge of Hellenistic rural society. The chronology of the Aderet farmhouse is considered in light of Yogev's suggestion to identify a late Iron Age occupation phase at the site based on its architectural plan and the presence of large quantities of Iron Age pottery. Also, the dating and typology of the oil press uncovered at the site are discussed in detail below. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes the possibilities of 3D documentation of historical monuments by photogrammetry on a selected sample of coins. It applies this selected method, verifies its suitability and describes some other digitization methods. It also contains a basic description of the methodology of creating 3D models of ancient coins.

• μXCT accelerates the numismatic identification process, outperforming current protocols. • It is performed on coins prior physical cleaning, without sample preparation. • Enables virtual reconstruction, preventing risks linked to manual handling. • Digitisation allows for information preservation and guides further cleaning. This study utilises X-ray Computed Micro-Tomography (μXCT) as a non-destructive and non-invasive method to recover the original surface features and reveal the characteristics of encrusted, illegible Roman copper-based coins before any physical cleaning process is performed. The coins were retrieved from the topsoil during an archaeological survey in the countryside of the ancient city of Aquileia, Italy, and were severely degraded, covered with accumulated matter and pronounced encrustations developed over centuries of aging buried in soil. Despite their condition, most of the coins were identified from a numismatic standpoint using tomographic data alone, with the aid of reference images. They were subsequently cleaned using traditional manual methods and the results compared with μXCT. X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analysis of the coins after the physical cleaning confirmed their numismatic attribution and revealed information regarding the influence of different alloy compositions on the applicability of the μXCT method, as well as on the corrosion process of the coins. This study showcases how the application of μXCT on fragile corroded metal artifacts prior to any intrusive manual procedures can expedite the identification process, mitigating the risk of information loss caused by physical handling and cleaning. This approach proves particularly valuable when dealing with large numbers of coins that would typically require restoration for identification purposes. It also emphasises the numerous advantages of using μXCT for coin identification, provenance determination, dating, virtual restoration, digitisation, and long-term preservation. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper studies a copper coin type issued during the reign of the Kuṣāṇ king Kujūla Kadphises (ca. 40/50–90 AD) called "Roman Emperor Type". These coins, dated towards the end of the first century AD, present on the obverse the image of a ruler recalling the imperial iconography of the Julio-Claudian period, and on the reverse Kujūla himself seated. The coin is a real innovation in the history of ancient Indian numismatics and can be the starting point to understand the political choices of Kujūla in a context still embryonic for the Kuṣāṇs. This paper, through the literary, epigraphic, and archaeological sources at our disposal, aims to demonstrate that the issuing was influenced not only by the halo of authority that the Romans had in India, but mainly by the economic and religious context of the city, which the sovereign used as a place of experimentation for this particular hybrid type of coin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines the disconnect between, on the one hand, the insistence on the part of multiple characters in Thucydides' first book on the need for the Peloponnesians to invest in naval power to defeat Athens, and, on the other, the failure to act on this in the narrative of books 2–7. It then analyses the numismatic evidence for the way in which Sparta does then act upon this advice in the course of the Ionian War, and suggests that Thucydides' view that this was done primarily with Persian support may be missing a (brief) Spartan attempt to create a fiscally self-supporting empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of Review of Historical Sciences / Przegląd Nauk Historycznych is the property of Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Lodzkiego and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The present paper is focusing on another case in the series Coins in archaeological context. The case under study is the farmstead/villa rustica from Rapoltu Mare - La vie (Hunedoara County, Romania) in the former Roman province of Dacia. Based on the correlation between archaeological, artefact data and the numismatic evidence the paper indicate how single coin finds are distributed by layers according to the site stratigraphy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Arenal.Revista de Historia de las Mujeres is the property of Arenal. Revista de Historia de las Mujeres and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

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Abstract In this paper, ‘contextual numismatics’ is presented as the most recent and innovative research direction in the field of numismatics. In addition, its further potential for research and the limit of gaining knowledge are outlined. A historical overview of the gradual development of an archaeological-oriented approach to numismatic material serves as an introduction to the discussion. This is followed by a presentation of the distinguishing features compared to other research methods to study Roman coin finds, as well as a discussion of possible paths and goals in the further development of this approach to study these culturally significant objects.

This article provides an overview of the most important coin types depicting frontal lions from the Greek Archaic period to the first century BC. The spear-biting lions are not included in this paper as they form the subject of a separate study. Starting from the ancient written tradition, explanations are offered based on the effect of the lion’s gaze, which is repeatedly mentioned in ancient texts. With the addition of the respective reverses and modes of representation, it is possible to identify references to religious cults: Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Hera and Heracles. But rulers also used frontal lion images for specific purposes. To express the solar aspect of Apollo, frontality seemed the most appropriate. A particularly close connection between the lion and Loxías has been demonstrated for Rhegion. The example of Samos shows that an autocrat could choose the emblem of a “frontal lion’s head” – probably also to suggest solar qualities. Under Achaemenid influence however, the lion regularly became the victim of the ruler – albeit a particularly dangerous and fearsome one, which was emphasised through its frontality. The same goes for Lysimachus, whose choice of image is astonishingly close to Pliny’s reflex, which focuses entirely on the lion’s sight. It is also shown that lion masks are often associated with the deeds of Heracles, which also gave rise to other coin images in which the use of frontality brought special nuances of meaning, for example the illustration of special effort or a narrative connection between two coin images. In one case, a frontal lion leaping out of a rectangle was associated with the cult of Athena. Another group of frontal lions may have had an apotropaic-demonic character, mainly conveyed by the eyes fixed on the observer. Here we can see a connection with the Gorgoneion. As for the frequent image of devouring lions, a biblical source suggests that the animals were particularly irritable and dangerous during this process. Finally, it was recommended that lions and leopards should be carefully separated, with leopards being particularly suitable for depicting the ‘man-destroying’ god Dionysus in frontal perspective.

The object of the study is a coin hoard that probably belonged to a Bulgarian collector. The hoard was identified before the Law on Cultural Heritage came into force and there is no exact information about both its whereabouts and discovery. There are some reasons to believe that the hoard was found in Northern Bulgaria. The idea of its composition is only based on photos; the measurements and weights of the coins are not available. One hundred and twelve silver coins of the period 175—243 CE were deposited, specifically 111 denarii and one antoninian. One cannot be sure of the accuracy of the available information about the actual amount of the hoard. However, the coin complex deserves publication, since it enables the clarification of our understanding of the composition of monetary circulation in Northern Bulgaria in the 3rd quarter of the 2nd — in the 1st half of the 3rd century.

Изучение памятников античной нумизматики из Южного Крыма продолжается вводом в научный оборот сведений об очередной группе римских денариев из Байдарской долины. Речь пойдёт о подъёмном материале (7 экз.) и о небольшом кладе (обнаружено 22 экз., изучено 10 экз.). Так, на уровне современной поверхности найдены монеты I— начала III вв.: Гальбы (1 экз.) и Веспасиана (1 экз.), а также Адриана (1 экз.), Антонина Пия (1 экз.), Септимия Севера (2 экз.) и Каракаллы (1 экз.). Клад состоял из денариев, выпущенных при императорах из династии Антонинов. Он включал монеты, датируемые правлениями Траяна (1 экз.), Адриана (2 экз.), Антонина Пия (2 экз.), Марка Аврелия (4 экз.) и Коммода (1 экз.). Если изученная выборка верно отражает содержание клада, то он сформировался при последнем из вышеперечисленных императоров или же при его ближайших приемниках. Все эти монеты могли обращаться в среде легионеров, служивших в гарнизоне Харакса. Также был найден обломок литого лимесного денария Коммода, изготовленный из высокооловянистой бронзы. Этот артефакт был изготовлен, по-видимому, в эпоху денария—статера.

За время раскопок городища Сарайчик обнаружено и с разной степенью подробности зафиксировано 8 кладов серебряных джучидских монет. Накопившееся количество находок сокрытых сокровищ требует и позволяет провести их анализ. Целью исследования является выявление особенностей состава серебряных монетных кладов Сарайчика, обнаруженных в ходе археологических раскопок, а также установление источников поступления серебряной чеканной продукции для обеспечения потребностей местного монетного обращения в динамике. Изучены условия обнаружения кладов, их хронологический и эмитентный состав, оценена частота встречаемости продукции тех или иных монетных дворов, указанных на монетах. Сокрытие кладов укладывается в период с 753 г. х. / 1353 г. по начало 770-х гг. х. / ~ 1368—1373 гг. Большинство же кладов имеют период тезаврации в течение 750-х — 760-х гг. х. / 1350-х — 1360-х гг. В составе кладов преобладает чеканная продукция монетных производств области Сарай и Гулистана, присутствуют единичные монеты Сыгнака, Крыма и Азака. Процент хорезмийской серебряной монеты — менее 5%. Товарно-денежные отношения начали развиваться на изучаемой территории средневекового Сарайчука только в XIV в., в правление Узбек-хана. Данги поступали в Сарайчук из области Сарай, а затем и Гулистана. Можно полагать, что средневековый Сарайчук в этот период непосредственно входил в состав области Сарай.

Статья продолжает ввод в научный оборот памятников античной нумизматики, обнаруженных в последние годы в Юго-Западной Таврике, близ скифских поселений долины р. Альма. Сравнительно недавно в поле зрения оказалась весьма редкая для этого региона находка — бронзовая драхма Птолемея IV Филопатора. Она обнаружена на современной поверхности холма Тавель. Монета привлекает внимание не только своей редкостью: она пополняет выборку монет Птолемеев с холма Тавель, подтверждая тем самым ранее представленный вывод о местном скифском святилище и о том, что монеты, почитавшиеся за обереги, приносились святилищу древними обитателями данной местности.

In this paper, 'contextual numismatics' is presented as the most recent and innovative research direction in the field of numismatics. In addition, its further potential for research and the limit of gaining knowledge are outlined. A historical overview of the gradual development of an archaeological-oriented approach to numismatic material serves as an introduction to the discussion. This is followed by a presentation of the distinguishing features compared to other research methods to study Roman coin finds, as well as a discussion of possible paths and goals in the further development of this approach to study these culturally significant objects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gold coins and luxury objects together play a prominent role in the presentation of Visigothic culture in museums as well as in discussions of the early medieval economy and political history of the Iberian Peninsula. Despite this, there is little consensus about the processes by which gold was exploited under Visigothic rule. This article assembles the disparate evidence for mining in Atlantic Iberia, where plentiful gold deposits were previously extracted on a large scale under Roman rule in the north-west and along the Tagus River. It discusses the contributions of numismatic and liturgical objects as well as the limited direct evidence for mining. It then integrates this evidence into discussions of rural settlement, arguing ultimately that mining should be seen as part of a diversified economic strategy among rural labourers, likely carried out on a small-scale basis alongside agriculture and other subsistence activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This essay focuses on a British‐made coin commissioned in 1811 by the first king of the northern part of the newly independent Haiti, Henry Christophe (1767–1820). The coin potently encapsulates the Kingdom of Hayti's central claims of racial equality, sovereignty and international recognition articulated in the wake of the Haitian Revolution. Here it is considered as the product of early nineteenth‐century Anglo‐Haitian relations, as an expression of Christophe's kingly ambitions, and as a striking entrant into the wider field of circum‐Atlantic numismatics that can help illuminate the paradoxes of the postrevolutionary kingdom's aesthetic regime. Christophe's numismatic image both depends upon and overwrites conventional forms and meanings of European coins, medals, and cameos. At the same time, it demands interpretation in relation to distinctively Caribbean interpretations of Black kingship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A Carolingian coin has recently been acquired by the Centre Charlemagne in Aachen which represents an entirely unexpected and truly historic addition to our knowledge of the reign of Charlemagne, as it bears the name of his wife Fastrada. It is the first known example of a queen being named on a Carolingian coin, and because the coin type was only introduced in 793 and Fastrada died in August 794, it can be very precisely dated. Charles was almost certainly prompted to strike it by learning of pennies of Cynethryth minted by Offa in the late 780s. The coinage reflects both the affection in which Charlemagne held Fastrada and the power he was prepared to share with her. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Stratum Plus Journal is the property of P.P. Stratum plus and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

A group of coins excavated at Qasr-e Abu Nasr, Shiraz, in south-central Iran, now in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, was studied and analyzed to examine the minting processes and to reconsider the numismatic history of the site. For this purpose, forty-three gold-, silver-, and copper-based coins were studied and analyzed by micro-X-ray fluorescence, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and metallographic techniques. The results of the analyses showed a wide range of alloy compositions. The gold coins are comprised of impure gold and electrum, while the silver coins are made of either near pure silver or debased silver copper. The copper-based coins are struck from a range of alloys, namely impure copper, tin bronze, leaded copper, and high-leaded tin bronze, closely correlated to the date and place of minting. The results of this interdisciplinary study provide new insights into the archaeology of Qasr-e Abu Nasr, as well as present new information about the history of minting on the Iranian Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article revisits the first catalogue of ancient Greek and Roman coins in British collections, published by N.F. Haym in London in 1720. In the collection of the Duke of Devonshire, Haym found a golden coin from Cyrene with the image of strange small animal next to the silphium, the vegetative symbol of Cyrene, which evinced a multidisciplinary interest during the Enlightenment period in England. Such coins from Cyrene constitute the subject of the current investigation, which aims to analyze their iconography and, specifically, to identify the animal and tentatively suggest the reason that it was depicted together with the silphium. Among other things, the author concludes that the coin from the collection of the Duke of Devonshire helped the development of three fields of study: numismatics, zoology, and botany.

Studies on the institutions of the Macedonian Koinon have expanded considerably in recent years since excavations in the region of Macedonia revealed a significant amount of numismatic and epigraphic evidence. Even though literary sources concerning the foundation and the existence of the Koinon are obscure, numismatic testimonies contributed to the institution and its role within the Macedonian territory under the Roman rule. In the current article, the “Serres, 1966” hoard is examined, which was found in 1966 and is today kept at the Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum. Emphasis is given to the iconographic types and the legends, which provide valuable information regarding the institutional and cultural character of the Macedonian Koinon.

This study addresses a metrological muddle: attempts to determine the metrical equivalence of the Baghdādī raṭl, a measure for coins, commerce, and religious requirements during the Abbasid and Mamluk eras. Western writers Sauvaire and Hinz interpreted the measure of the widespread Baghdādī raṭl by determining a metric equivalent around three grams for the building block of the silver dirham weight. Islamic scholars, however, proposed three different dirham amounts for this raṭl and noted that there were two different ways of determining the standard ratio of the dirham to the dinar. These scholars applied the Baghdādī raṭl of their day to determine the weights of two earlier measures, the ṣāʿ and the mudd from the time of the Prophet Muḥammad. The study of Islamic era metrology has received little critical attention, apart from the field of numismatics, since the work of Walther Hinz, last updated in 1970. I provide a prolegomenon for the need to reread both earlier Muslim authors and the seminal works of Don Vasquez Queipo, Henri Sauvaire and others. Suggestions for approaching the interpretation of Islamic era weights and measures are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although grateful that Berge, Edelman, Guillaume, and Rossi have engaged my essay, 'The Question of Provenance and the Economics of Deuteronomy', their critique, which speaks against my conclusions, fails to account for essential archaeological, ethnographic, and linguistic data illuminating the economic profile of the Book of Deuteronomy. The most significant lacuna is their failure to address the economic realities of the Persian period. That data, and more, is summarized here. The present essay moves past literary and historiographic presuppositions regarding the provenance of Urdeuteronomium in order to engage the economic and numismatic realia that is recoverable from Israel's world and offer an important avenue forward in deuteronomic researcḥ [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The crucial theme of the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages and the related periodisation has always been one of the most fascinating yet difficult for historiographic critics to tackle. Paolo Delogu dealt with it at length by examining precisely the capital of the empire, the city par excellence: Rome. Four eminent scholars from different disciplines and experts on the subject (a historian, an archaeologist, an art historian and a numismatic expert), examine the work in depth, each from his own specific point of view and all highlighting the greatest and best feature of Delogu's book: that of connecting the fleeting and scattered evidence from all sources that has survived for such an ancient and poorly documented period into a powerful and organic synthesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses Paolo Delogu's innovative approach to history of Rome in the Early Middle Ages (6th to 9th century). It mentions Delogu's book, "Storie, luoghi, persone," combines various disciplines, including political history, religious history, archaeology, numismatics, art history, and iconography. The author's meticulous and context-driven use of archaeological evidence is highlighted, emphasizing the integration of material culture, urban landscapes, and societal transformations.