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The total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content is representative index for measuring the freshness of cooked meat. The study investigated integrating spectral and image information from visible and near-infrared hyperspectral imaging for predicting TVB-N values in cooked beef during storage. Nine optimal wavelengths were selected by uninformative variable elimination (UVE) and successive projections algorithm (SPA). Thirty-six singular values as texture features were extracted using discrete wavelet transform (DCT). Partial least squares regression (PLSR) and least squares-support vector machine (LS-SVM) models were established using spectral, image, and their fusion information. The models based on data fusion yielded satisfactory prediction results: PLSR gave R c 2 and R P 2 values of 0.9512 and 0.9401 with RMSEC and RMSEP of 1.9037 and 1.8942; LS-SVM gave R c 2 and R P 2 values of 0.9674 and 0.9579 with RMSEC and RMSEP of 1.6538 and 1.5435. The distribution of TVB-N values from sample images was visualized using the fused LS-SVM model with image processing algorithms. This indicated that integrating spectral and image information from hyperspectral imaging coupled with the LS-SVM or PLSR algorithm could predict the TVB-N value and visualize its distribution in cooked beef. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this 180-day study, commercial Protex 51FP enzyme effects as a starter culture on anchovy fish sauce fermentation were investigated. Three fish source fermentation groups, including a control group (the anchovy with 25% of salt addition), E group (the anchovy with 25% of salt and 1% of Protex 51FP addition), and E (-s) group (the anchovy with 1% of Protex 51FP and after 6 hours with 25% of salt), were compared. The fish sauce fermentation groups were sampled, packed into glass jars (10 liters), and covered by a lid at ambient temperature (22 - 30°C) for 180 days. Three commercial fish sauces were also included as nutritional references. The results showed that the addition of Protex 51FP achieved positive results of total nitrogen content and amino acids compared to the control samples (p<0.05). These values were competitive with commercial product figures. Total amino acids in 8000mg/100ml fish sauce were significantly higher than those in the control. There were rich in essential amino acids (41-43%) and small peptides (13% peptides with a molecular weight below 200 Da, 32-39% peptides with a molecular weight below 130 - 200 Da, and 25-28% of peptides with a molecular weight below 200 – 360 Da). Compared with traditional methods, the addition of Protex 51FP (p<0.05) could improve the quality of fish sauce and obtain greater nutritional values. In all experiments, the color of adding-enzyme samples was darker than that of the traditional products, and the smell of these samples (including traditional methods) was not as quite strong as commercial products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 2-yr grazing experiment was conducted to evaluate efficacy of nitrogen (N) fertilization, interseeded legumes, and protein supplementation for N delivery to stocker cattle grazing annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum). Each year, 90 steers (initial BW, 241 ± 13 kg) were assigned to the following N-delivery methods, with or without monensin fed in a free-choice mineral supplement as a 5 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments: ryegrass fertilized with 112 kg N/ha (NFERT); ryegrass interseeded with crimson clover (CC, Trifolium incarnatum); ryegrass interseeded with arrowleaf clover (AC, Trifolium vesiculosum); ryegrass plus distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS) supplemented at 0.65% BW daily; and ryegrass plus whole cottonseed (WCS) supplemented at 0.65% BW daily. Pastures within the interseeded-clover and protein-supplementation treatments were fertilized with 56 kg N/ha at time of establishment. Steers were weighed every 28 d, and forage mass (FM, kg DM/ha) was measured concurrently using the destructive harvest/disk meter double-sampling method. Each of 30 0.81-ha paddocks was stocked initially with 3 "tester" steers, and stocking density (steers/ha) was adjusted using "put-and-take steers" based on changes in FM and steer BW in order to maintain a uniform forage allowance (FA) of 1 kg DM/kg steer BW. Grazing was discontinued on May 11, 2016 in Yr 1 and May 10, 2017 in Yr 2 following 140 and 84 d of grazing, respectively. Data were analyzed as a completely randomized design with repeated measures for which pasture (n = 3) was the experimental unit. Ionophore inclusion did not affect (P > 0.10) any variable measured. Mean FM differed (P < 0.0001) between years and among N-delivery methods (P < 0.10), and mean FA differed (P = 0.005) among N-delivery methods. Steer ADG differed among N-delivery methods (P = 0.02) and between years (P < 0.001), whereas total gain/ha differed (P < 0.0008) among N-delivery methods, but not between years (P = 0.78). Stocking density differed among N-delivery methods (P = 0.02) and between years (P < 0.0001), and grazing-days/ha differed between years (P < 0.0001) and among N-delivery methods (P = 0.001). Results indicate that supplementation with a high-protein by-product feed for cattle grazing annual ryegrass maintained ADG, total gain/ha and grazing-days/ha compared with N-fertilized annual ryegrass, and increased ADG, total gain/ha, and grazing-days over interseeded legumes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein content in foods and feeds is measured indirectly by nitrogen determination, requiring a nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor (NPCF). Historically, 6.25 was applied to all proteins based on two assumptions: (1) all proteins had a nitrogen content of 16% (100/16 = 6.25) and (2) all nitrogen was derived from protein. Amino acid analyses revealed that a conversion factor of 6.25 overestimated the protein content of most foods due to variations in amino acid profiles and nonprotein nitrogen. The lack of standardization of methods to determine food‐specific NPCF has resulted in continued use of 6.25 and inconsistent development of new factors. This review summarizes efforts made to derive NPCF for various foods. Soy protein has been the subject of considerable debate since publication of the "Jones factors" in 1931, which based the soy conversion factor of 5.71 on the nitrogen content of glycinin. Nonetheless, 6.25 is still used by the soy industry, analytic associations, and government regulatory bodies. Given the impact to the valuation of soy protein products and food relabeling costs, changes to soy alone appear discriminatory in the absence of standardized methods for developing NPCF for all proteins. Proposed solutions include (1) developing a consensus method to determine NPCF applicable to all foods, (2) applying standardized NPCF to measure protein in all foods and assessing the economic, nutritional, and regulatory consequences equitably, and (3) developing standardized direct methods to measure protein, such as amino acid analyses, in foods intended as single sources in vulnerable populations where more accurate measurement and reducing any risk of adulteration with nonprotein nitrogen are essential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study was an attempt to investigate the effect of levels of fungal (Lentinus sajor-caju) treated oil palm fronds (FTOPF) on digestibility, rumen fermentation, and nitrogen balance in goats. Methods: Four 16 month old male crossbred (Thai Native×Anglo Nubian) goats with initial body weights of 33.5±1.7 kg were randomly assigned according to a 4×4 Latin square design. Four levels of FTOPF were assigned for feed intake. The experimental treatments consisted of 0%, 33%, 67%, and 100% of oil palm fronds (OPF) being replaced by FTOPF. Results: The results revealed that total dry matter intake and nutrient intake were not influenced (p>0.05) by the inclusion of FTOPF. However, the efficiency values of the digestibility of the dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, and acid detergent lignin on FTOPF were higher (p<0.05) in treatments with 33%, 67%, and 100% of FTOPF compared with 0% of FTOPF. FTOPF feeding did not change the rumen pH, temperature, and NH3-N. However, the FTOPF levels did affect the total volatile fatty acid (VFA), molar proportion of acetate, propionate, butyrate, ratio of acetic (propionic acid and acetic) plus butyric (propionic acid), and production of CH4. The totals of VFA and propionate was lower in goat fed with 0% of FTOPF than in those of the other groups (p<0.05). The amount of nitrogen retention based on g/d/animal or the percentage of nitrogen retained was the lowest the goat fed with 0% of FTOPF (p<0.05), whereas nitrogen intake, excretion, and absorption were not changed among treatments. Conclusion: Based on this study, FTOPF could be effectively used as an alternative roughage source in total mixed ration diets, constituting at least up to 100% of OPF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

National-level summaries of crop production and nutrient use efficiency, important for international comparisons, only partially elucidate agricultural dynamics within a country. Agricultural production and associated environmental impacts in large countries vary significantly because of regional differences in crops, climate, resource use and production practices. Here, we review patterns of regional crop production, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE), and major inputs of nitrogen to US crops over 1987–2012, based on the Farm Resource Regions developed by the Economic Research Service (USDA-ERS). Across the US, NUE generally decreased over time over the period studied, mainly due to increased use in mineral N fertilizer above crop N requirements. The Heartland region dominates production of major crops and thus tends to drive national patterns, showing linear response of crop production to nitrogen inputs broadly consistent with an earlier analysis of global patterns of country-scale data by Lassaletta et al. (2014). Most other regions show similar responses, but the Eastern Uplands region shows a negative response to nitrogen inputs, and the Southern Seaboard shows no significant relationship. The regional differences appear as two branches in the response of aggregate production to N inputs on a cropland area basis, but not on a total area basis, suggesting that the type of scaling used is critical under changing cropland area. Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is positively associated with fertilizer as a percentage of N inputs in four regions, and all regions considered together. NUE is positively associated with crop N fixation in all regions except Northern Great Plains. It is negatively associated with manure (livestock excretion); in the US, manure is still treated largely as a waste to be managed rather than a nutrient resource. This significant regional variation in patterns of crop production and NUE vs N inputs, has implications for environmental quality and food security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study evaluated the influence of different factors on pork hams cooked by sous-vide method. The quality and structural and microbiological properties of the treated samples were compared with those of controls. Samples were subjected to treatment at different combinations of temperature (61 °C or 71 °C), time (45 or 90 min), and vacuum degree (98.81% or 96.58%). The control sample was air packaged and boiled for 45 min in boiling water. Temperature and vacuum degree affected quality properties, while the effect of time was limited. Samples cooked at 61 °C showed higher moisture content, redness, and pink color of the meat juice, whereas samples cooked at 71 °C showed higher cooking loss rate, lightness, and volatile basic nitrogen values. Texture analysis indicated tenderer meat for the treatment group than the control. No microbial growth was detected in any treatment groups. Meat cooked at 61 °C and 98.81% vacuum showed more spacious arrangement of meat fiber. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alkyldiethanolamides (fatty acid diethanolamides) synthesis from Terminalia catappa L. kernel oil was optimized using lypozyme as a catalyst. The result showed that the optimal reaction conditions were 2 hours reaction time, with a ratio of oil mass (g) to diethanolamine (mmol) of 1:5, a ratio of oil mass to enzyme (g) of 1: 0.075, and a temperature of 40°C. The percentage of alkyldiethanolamides at optimum condition was 56-60%. The synthesis results were also analyzed by FTIR. FTIR spectra revealed specific absorption at several wave numbers (3434 cm-1, 1655 cm-1, 1280 cm-1), indicating that amide and alcohol bonds (C=O, C-N, and O-H) were formed. GC-MS was employed to identify the types of fatty acid diethanolamides that were successfully synthesized. The fatty acid diethanolamides formed were palmitoyldiethanolamide (Rt = 32.96 min) and oleyldiethanolamide (Rt = 35.57 min). The total nitrogen content of alkyldietanolamides was 0.26%, or 0.19 mmol of the amide group in 1 g of sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The annual application of fertilizers with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to wheat and maize cultures leads to an increase the concentration of heavy metals in their seeds. For this purpose,during the period 2010-2012, was studiedthe effect of application of different doses of chemical fertilizers on the lead concentration of wheat and maize grains. The results showed that with the gradual increase of the chemical fertilizer doses, the lead concentration of the cereal grains also increased. Statistically significant differences from the nonfertilized control were recorded for both grains, 0.046 mg/kg for wheat seeds and 0.059 mg/kg for maize grains respectively, in variant fertilized with N160P80K120. Lead concentrations did not exceed the maximum permitted limit of 0.2 mg Pb/kg, according to ORDER (EC) No. 1881/2006. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A two-stage moromi fermentation method was employed to the soy sauce making in order to shorten the overall fermentation time. At the first stage, the koji was mixed with 10% brine solution and incubated at 40 °C for 5 days. The second fermentation stage was conducted under three different treatments, including reduced temperature from 40 °C to 30 °C, outdoor without temperature control, and indoor ambience temperature up to 3 months with the brine content increased from 10% to 18%. The increases of total nitrogen (TN) and amino nitrogen (AN) contents were mainly occurred at the first stage while maintain constant during the second stage. Both TN and AN values satisfied the requirement of first-grade soy sauce of Taiwan. Unlike TN and AN, the reducing sugar and total acid contents still increased with fermentation time during the second stages. Since most of the changes of these biochemical properties occurred within 5 days’ moromi fermentation, the use of high temperature and low salt fermentation condition in the first stage was very important to rapid fermentation process of soy sauce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hyperspectral imaging combined with variable selection methods was used to perform the rapid and accurate detection and visualization of total volatile basic nitrogen content in mutton. For each sample, several spectra were extracted from the region of muscle pixels for modeling, and the model performance was improved and better than the model established with average spectrum extracting from each sample. By two steps of variable screening with competitive adaptive reweighted sampling and stepwise regression methods, the efficient dimensionality reduction of spectral data was achieved, and the important characteristic variables were selected. The nonlinear model significantly improved the model predictive capability, and the visualization distribution map based on the model was consistent with the actual change of meat spoilage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Yaks ( Bos grunniens ) and Qaidam yellow cattle ( Bos taurus ) are indigenous to the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and graze natural pasture all year. Yaks are raised at higher elevations than cattle and are not offered supplementary feed whereas cattle receive supplementary feed and are sheltered at night during winters. We hypothesized that the species differ in metabolism of energy and nitrogen (N) and predicted that the differences would favour yaks to the harsh conditions of the plateau. To test our prediction, we examined nutrient digestibility, rumen fermentation, digestive enzymes and urinary purine derivatives (PD) in yaks and cattle offered forage-concentrate diets differing in N concentration. Four castrated yaks and 4 castrated cattle of similar ages (2.5 years) and body weights (200 kg) were used in two concurrent 4×4 Latin square designs. There was no difference ( P > 0.05) between yaks and cattle in apparent digestibilities of dietary nutrients, concentrations of ruminal N components and activities of digestive enzymes ( P > 0.05). Crude protein and acid detergent fiber digestibilities increased linearly ( P < 0.001) while neutral detergent fiber digestibility decreased linearly ( P < 0.05) with increased dietary N intake for both species. Ruminal concentration of total VFA was greater in yaks than in cattle across diets ( P < 0.05), but pH was similar between species ( P > 0.05), and both variables were not affected by dietary N content ( P > 0.05). As dietary N increased, ruminal concentrations of ammonia, urea and amino acids increased linearly (all P < 0.001), peptides tended to increase ( P < 0.10), but soluble protein remained constant ( P > 0.10) for both species. The activity of carboxymethylcellulase decreased linearly ( P < 0.01) while activities of deaminase and urease increased linearly ( P < 0.001) with increased dietary N. Urinary PD and components did not differ between species ( P > 0.10); however, the PD nitrogen index (PNI) was greater in yaks than in cattle for the lowest N diets (linear dietary N × species, P < 0.01). With an increase in dietary N, urinary total PD, allantoin and uric acid increased linearly ( P < 0.001), as did microbial N synthesis ( P < 0.001), whereas PNI decreased linearly ( P < 0.001). In addition, microbial N production was greater in yaks than in cattle ( P < 0.05). We concluded that energy and nitrogen metabolism were more efficient in yaks than in Qaidam cattle, which enable yaks to better cope with the harsh foraging conditions of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content is an important index used to evaluate the freshness of pork. In this paper, a strategy for measurement of TVB-N content in pork through hyperspectral imaging (HSI) (400–1000 nm) was developed. Firstly, image textural features based on Gabor filter and spectral features were obtained from the hyperspectral image after determining the region of interest. Then, nine feature wavelengths were selected using partial least-squares projection algorithm. And, major components were obtained from the 2D principal component analysis (2DPCA). Finally, a calibration model was established based on major components using least-squares support vector machine to predict TVB-N values. The results of two methods for data fusion, which are 2DPCA and principal component analysis (PCA), are compared. The correlation coefficients of prediction ( R P ) and root-mean-square errors of prediction (RMSEP) obtained through 2DPCA were 0.955 and 1.86 mg/100 g respectively, which was superior to the results based on PCA ( R P = 0.944, RMSEP = 2.07 mg/100 g). Compared to PCA, the residual prediction deviations (RPD) based on 2DPCA was raised from 3.01 to 3.35. Results demonstrated that the proposed model based on 2DPCA exhibited potential for nondestructive detection of TVB-N content in pork. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the potential use of atmospheric pressure plasma (APP) treatment as a curing process for canned ground ham. APP treatment for 60 min while mixing increased the nitrite content in the meat batters from 0.64 to 60.50 mg kg −1 while the pH and the total content of aerobic bacteria in the meat batters were unchanged. The canned ground hams cured by the APP treatment for 30 min displayed no difference in their physicochemical qualities, such as nitrosyl hemochrome, color, residual nitrite, texture, lipid oxidation, and protein oxidation, compared with those of canned ground hams cured with sodium nitrite or celery powder at 42 mg kg −1 of nitrite. The canned ground hams cured by the APP treatment received a higher score in taste and overall acceptability than those cured with sodium nitrite. Canned ground ham can be cured by the APP treatment without nitrite additives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chlorella, among microalgae, has possibly been the most used for feeding, as well as the most researched in heterotrophic growing lately due to the highest lipid yield. The objective of this work was to study the effect of carbon and nitrogen concentration for lipid productivity and biomass production of microalga Chlorella minutissima, cultivated in absence of light. The complete factorial design used was type 22 with three repetitions at the central point, having as glucose concentration factor (1, 5 e 9 g.L-1) and as sodium nitrate (NaNO3) (0.2; 0.75 and 1.3 g.L-1), and total lipid and biomass concentration as responses, with a total number of 7 experiments. The cultivation carried out with 9 g.L-1 of glucose and 0.2 g.L-1 of NaNO3 was the one that presented better lipid concentration (29.38% w/w), better cell growth (0.89 g.L-1) and a lipid profile comprising saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in 26.6% w/w, 62.4% w/w and 11% w/w concentrations, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food nitrogen (N), which includes animal-food (AN) and plant-food N (PN), has been driven by population growth (PG), dietary changes associated with income growth (DC) and rural-urban migration (M) over the past three decades, and these changes combined with their N cost, have caused some effect on N use in China's food system. Although there is an increasing literature on food N and its environmental impacts in China, the relative magnitude of these driving forces are not well understood. Here we first quantify the differences in per capita AN and PN consumption in urban and rural areas and their impacts on N input to the food system during 1990–2012, and then quantify the relative contributions of DC, PG and M in the overall N change during this period. Our results show that a resident registered as living in city required 0.5 kg more AN yr − 1 and 0.5 kg less PN yr − 1 than one living in a rural area, in 2012. DC, PG and M accounted for 52%, 31% and 17% of the total AN increase, respectively. These three factors caused 46% of the increased N use for food production over the past two decades. Another 54% was mainly caused by the declining in N use efficiencies of the food system. Food-sourced N loss intensity in urban and rural areas were 502 and 162 kg N hm − 2 in 2012, a three-fold difference due to the increasing amount and a linear rural-urban flow of N input, and inadequate N recovery via solid waste and wastewater treatment in cities. Our study highlights China is facing higher risks of environmental N pollution with urbanization, because of the high demand for AN and higher food-sourced N loss intensity in urban than in rural areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New cultivars 'Alpine Russet', 'Dakota Trailblazer' and 'Ivory Crisp' have lower tuber reducing sugars and acrylamide-forming potential. Adoption of new cultivars by growers requires information about their responses to agronomic factors such as nitrogen (N) fertilizer. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of N rate on yield and quality of new cultivars relative to conventional cultivars 'Russet Burbank' and 'Snowden'. The experiment was conducted over two years as a randomized complete block design replicated four times with five N rates and five cultivars. The new cultivars had comparable or higher marketable yields, and a higher percentage of large tubers (greater than170 g) than the standard cultivars. Total and marketable yields responded quadratically to N and optimized at 231 kg ha in 2011 and 319 kg ha in 2012 for all cultivars. 'Dakota Trailblazer' had high hollow heart incidence (greater than 10% at N rates above 125 kg ha), and excessively high specific gravity, making it undesirable for processing but with potential to be a parent in a breeding program. 'Alpine Russet' and 'Ivory Crisp' had specific gravity suitable for commercial processing, and low hollow heart incidence at all N rates. Critical petiole nitrate-N concentrations 50 and 70 days after planting for all cultivars were greater in 2012 than in 2011, suggesting that interpretation of critical values can be affected by growing conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the C/N ratio on the water state changes during the composting of kitchen waste (KW) and vegetable waste (VW) mixtures. The C/N ratios in KW and VW were 50.70 and 27.07, respectively, and the VW was added to the KW to amend the C/N ratio. Five composting treatments were used, R1 with 0% KW, R2 with 25% KW, R3 with 50% KW, R4 with 75% KW, and R5 with 100% KW, and the initial C/N ratios increased in the order R1 < R2 < R3 < R4 < R5. As the composting process progressed, the capillary water (CW) and multi-molecular-layer water (MMLW) were changed into entrapped water (EW), and a high C/N ratio could delay the changes in the water state. The percentage of EW and CW significantly positively correlated with the C/N ratio during the composting of KW. The composting process performed better in treatments R2 and R3 than in the other treatments, and it was found that treatments R2 and R3 each had a lag phase of around 4 d until the water states started to change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to determine the salt content in selected cooked meat products by the methods of determining the sodium content and the content of chlorides. The resulting data was compared with other chemical, instrumental and sensory parameters of the analysed samples. A total of 133 samples of 5 meat products were tested. The sodium content ranged from 558.0 to 1308.0 mg Na/100 g. Salt level determined by the two methods strongly correlated and did not differ in any meat product. Intensity of salty taste of the product was independent on its salt content. The salt (sodium) content may be reduced without a negative impact on sensory or instrumental properties of meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose a new methodology for estimating the nitrogen footprint of food, which has recently been identified as an indicator of human interference in the environment, specifically due to our global production and consumption of food. N-calculator is the common method of nitrogen footprint estimation, which evaluates nitrogen outputs into the environment at each step from crop production to food consumption based on Virtual Nitrogen Factor (VNF). For heavy food importers like Japan, however, it is difficult to get suitable VNFs of exporting countries. Our method is a top-down approach for estimating new external nitrogen inputs from chemical fertilizers and biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) used within the country (i.e., direct inputs), as well as in food-exporting countries (i.e., indirect inputs) that export to Japan; our approach is based primarily on open access statistical data, not on VNFs. In this present study, we measured nitrogen inputs for 110 combinations of food items and exporting countries; from our evaluations, the estimated nitrogen footprint of Japan was 16.5–18.1 kg N capita −1 , of which direct inputs constituted approximately 5.5 kg N, leaving more than two-thirds as indirect inputs from food imports. The nitrogen footprint of Japan was smaller than those of the USA and some European countries, but we calculated the nitrogen footprint to be 27.8 kg N capita −1 , i.e., larger than all other countries, when all consumed food was assumed to be produced in Japan, and the significant increase in nitrogen input was caused primarily by less efficient crop production in Japan than by exporting countries. Overall, our results were much smaller than previous estimations of footprint of Japan based on the common method in which all imported food is assumed to come from the USA because of the difficulty in using VNFs for many exporting countries. Although our results have uncertainties, based on our results, we consider our method to be suitable for estimating the nitrogen footprint of countries that significantly rely on imported food, much like Japan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the effect of the inclusion of Leucaena leucocephala on dry matter (DM) intake and digestibility, nitrogen (N) balance and energy utilization in cattle fed a basal ration of Pennisetum purpureum and housed in metabolic crates. Five crossbred ( Bos taurus × Bos indicus ) heifers (BW: 295 ± 6 kg) were fed chopped P. purpureum grass and five increasing levels of L. leucocephala (0, 20, 40, 60 and 80% of DM) in a 5 × 5 Latin square design. The intake of DM was similar (P > 0.05) among treatments, with an average of 7.03 kg of DM/day. While the crude protein intake (CPI) linearly increased (P < 0.001) with the inclusion of L. leucocephala , the DM digestibility (average 492.3 g/kg DM) and OM digestibility (average 501.6 g/kg OM) were not affected (P > 0.05) by the incorporation of L. leucocephala into the ration. The N intake and excretion in the urine increased linearly (P = 0.0001, 0.0001) as the level of L. leucocephala in the ration increased. In addition, methane energy loss as a percentage of that in the control ration, was of only 61% (P = 0.0005) with 80% incorporation of L. leucocephala in the ration. We concluded that the inclusion of L. leucocephala has the capacity to reduce energy losses in the form of methane emissions. Nevertheless, the energy losses in the urine increased with the addition of L. leucocephala to the ration, with the optimal levels of incorporation in the ration fluctuating between 20 and 40% of the ration DM, which had no effects on the dry matter intake (DMI), organic matter intake (OMI) or the digestibility of dry matter (DMD). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 3 × 2 × 2 experiment using 3 levels (0, 30 and 60 g/kg) of poultry by-product meal (PBM), two levels (180 and 190 g/kg) of crude protein (CP) and two levels of exogenous protease (with and without) was undertaken using factorial arrangement under completely randomized design. The birds (n = 1920) were randomly divided into 48 replicates with four replicates under each treatment (40 birds/replicate). Six isocaloric diets (ME 11.93 MJ/kg) were formulated with 2 CP (180 and 190 g/kg) levels. Each diet was supplemented with or without exogenous enzyme and fed to experimental birds from day 1–35. The dietary supplementation of exogenous protease increased feed intake ( P < 0.001) and body weight gain ( P < 0.001). The feed: gain was also improved by supplementation of protease during day 1–21 and day 1–35. However, feed intake and body weight gain ( P < 0.001) decreased with decreasing level of CP during day 1–21 and day 1–35. Similarly increasing the level of PBM from 30 to 60 g/kg decreased feed intake and body weight gain ( P < 0.001) during day 1–21. The feed: gain was also poor ( P < 0.05) during this period. No effect of reducing CP level on AME, apparent digestibility co-efficient for nitrogen, and AME n was noted. However, nitrogen retention (N ret ) was decreased ( P < 0.001) when CP level was decreased. Inclusion of PBM also had no effect on nutrient digestibility. A significant interaction ( P < 0.05) of PBM and CP was noted on AME, N ret and AME n . However, addition of enzyme improved all these parameters. In conclusion, CP level can be reduced to 190 g/kg with 30 g/kg PBM inclusion by supplementing exogenous protease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sun hemp (Crotalaria junceaL.) residue as a proper nitrogen (N) source for a potato crop (Solanum tuberosumL.) was investigated. Leaf nutritional indices (LNI), i.e, SPAD (SPAD-502, Minolta, Japan), total chlorophyll (CHLT), and N-total content, and their validity to predict tuber yield and N recovery were estimated. Moreover, comparison with mineral N fertilization was conducted. The estimated variables exhibited linear increase patterns to sun hemp N rates. Moreover, correlation coefficients between LNI and yield components were significant. Comparison of sun hemp N-amounts with mineral nitrogen showed lower SPAD values, similar CHLT, N-total, and N recovery. However, the elevated application produced superior yields to mineral one. Sun hemp residue incorporation prior to potato accounted for adequate N supply. Additionally, LNI are appropriate tools to determine potato N status and enable yield prognoses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The quantification of faecal nitrogen (FN) and of urinary urea-N (UUN) and urinary non-urea-N (UNUN) excretion at varying N contents in ruminant rations is an important tool in assessing endogenous N turnover via the rumino-hepatic cycle. Using a statistical analysis based on an extensive database, the aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate correlations derived previously by deduction. The data were categorised into dairy cattle, growing cattle (bulls and heifers), sheep and goats. Data from 50 publications were considered. The independent variable was the daily N intake (NI, g/day). The dependent variables were the daily quantities (g/day) of FN, urinary N (UN) , UUN, UNUN and N retention. The NI influenced FN to differing extents in goats, dairy cattle, growing cattle and sheep (listed in descending order of influence). Except in sheep, the effect was statistically significant. The influence on UN varied in the order goats, growing cattle, dairy cattle and sheep; the effect was statistically significant only for dairy cattle and growing cattle (P<0.001). The UUN was influenced in the order sheep, goats, dairy cattle and growing cattle (P<0.05). The UNUN could be assessed only in dairy cattle, growing cattle and sheep and was not influenced by NI. The UUN is therefore more strongly dependent on NI than is UNUN and the latter can therefore continue to be seen as obligatory. The FN is indeed influenced by NI but, as a result of higher digestibility of the total ration with increasing crude protein content, an improvement in microbial crude protein synthesis can also be assumed, which is reflected in higher FN levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We test the hypothesis that reduction in grain N concentration under elevated CO 2 concentration (e[CO 2 ]) is associated with N types (NH 4 + and NO 3 − ) and their ratios. Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L. cv. H45) was grown in a glasshouse under two CO 2 concentrations (389 μmol mol −1 and 700 μmol mol −1 ), supplied with equal amount of N with different ratios of NH 4 + and NO 3 − : (i) 100% NO 3 − –N; (ii) 50% NO 3 − –N and 50% NH 4 + –N; and (iii) 25% NO 3 − –N and 75% NH 4 + –N. Plant growth, N uptake and partitioning were measured during plant development. Plant biomass and grain yield was increased at e[CO 2 ] when N was supplied as an equal proportion of NO 3 − and NH 4 + . Despite the yield increment, grain N concentration was not affected by e[CO 2 ], in 50% NO 3 − –N treatment. In contrast, grain N concentration decreased in 100% NO 3 − –N and 25% NO 3 − –N treatments. In 50% NO 3 − –N treatment, N uptake during post-anthesis stage (from 69 to 141 days after planting) was significantly stimulated under e[CO 2 ] compared to 100% NO 3 − –N and 25% NO 3 − –N treatments. We concluded that supplement of N in an equal proportion of NO 3 − and NH 4 + which increases post-anthesis N uptake, avoid the reduction of grain N concentration under e[CO 2 ]. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of combined treatment with supercritical CO 2 (2000 psi, 35 °C for 2 h) and rosemary powder (2.5% and 5.0% (w/w)) on microbiological and physicochemical properties of ground pork stored at 4 °C was investigated. The changes in total viable count, pH, total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), lipid oxidation and instrumental color (CIE L ⁎ , a ⁎ , b ⁎ ) were analyzed during a week period of refrigerated storage. It was found that microbial populations were reduced by supercritical CO 2 treatment, with the more pronounced effect being achieved by combined treatment with supercritical CO 2 and 5.0 g rosemary powder/100 g meat. Supercritical CO 2 treatment for 2 h could accelerate lipid oxidation of ground pork during refrigerated storage, whereas combination with rosemary can significantly slow down the increase of oxidation rate. Combined treatment of supercritical CO 2 and rosemary significantly increased L ⁎ and b ⁎ values of the ground pork, while the a ⁎ , pH and TVB-N value were not affected as compared to the treatment with supercritical CO 2 alone. The results of this study indicate that combined treatment of supercritical CO 2 and rosemary may be useful in the meat industry to enhance the storage stability of ground pork treated with long time exposure of supercritical CO 2 during refrigerated storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Food security in Asia depends significantly on small-scale pond aquaculture in which fish feed on external feeds and natural food resources. Little is known about the assimilation of natural food resources into fish. In order to elucidate the food web and nitrogen flows in a traditionally and a semi-intensively managed pond in Vietnam, δC and δN in pond inputs and fish were measured before and after the application of inorganic N at 1.1 and 0.4 % of total nitrogen. The applied N was traced through the biomass of stocked fish over 30 days. Under traditional management, grass carp was the dominant species in number and biomass. After 30 days, grass carp assimilated 1.2 % of the applied tracer through natural food resources. Filter feeders assimilated only 0.1-0.3 % of the tracer after 30 days because of the limited productivity in the traditionally managed pond. Nile tilapia showed the highest uptake rates over the 30 days, which demonstrated their ability to feed on a variety of natural food resources. In total, 2.6 % of the applied N was assimilated into fish biomass after 30 days. Under semi-intensive management, common carp was the main species numerically and assimilated 1.8 % of the tracer after 30 days. Grass carp was stocked at lower density, but had the highest biomass by the time of the experiment. Grass carp assimilated 0.2 % of the applied tracer suggesting a low contribution of natural food resources to its nutrition. Silver carp benefited most from the higher natural food resources. In total, 4.1 % of applied N was assimilated into fish biomass after 30 days. Traditional small-scale aquaculture of a grass carp-dominated polyculture has a lower assimilation efficiency of applied fertilizers into fish biomass than a common carp-dominated polyculture under semi-intensive management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND The differential characteristic of sparkling wine is the formation of foam, which is dependent, among other factors, on yeast autolysis, aging and oenological practices. In this study, we analyzed the effects of yeast strain, nutrient supplementation to the base wine and aging process on the sparkling wine composition and its foamability. RESULTS We determined that the addition of inorganic nitrogen promoted nitrogen liberation to the extracellular medium, while the addition of inactive dry yeast to the base wine caused an increase in the polysaccharide concentration and foaming properties of the sparkling wine. The use of synthetic and natural base wines allowed us to discriminate that the differences in high-molecular-weight polysaccharides and oligosaccharides could be attributed to the yeast cells and that the higher nitrogen content in the natural wine could be due to external proteolysis. CONCLUSION The practices of nitrogen addition and supplementation of inactive dry yeast could modulate the main characteristics of the sparkling wine and be a critical element for the design of this kind of wine. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is known of the relationship between the chemical characteristics and bacterial community of Myeolchi-Aekjeot , a traditional Korean fermented anchovy sauce. Therefore, we explored this relationship by determining the salinity, pH, nitrogen content and inorganic content of nine Myeolchi-Aekjeot samples. Major resident bacteria in Myeolchi-Aekjeot samples were from the genus Halanaerobium and Tetragenococcus . Interestingly, in samples with a high ratio of total and amino nitrogen content, Tetragenococcus , comprising halophilic lactic acid bacteria, was the dominant genus. Furthermore, high total and amino nitrogen contents were found to correlate with the genus Tetragenococcus , with R 2 values of 0.85 and 0.89, respectively. Total nitrogen content is generally considered a quality parameter for fish sauces. We therefore conclude that the presence of Tetragenococcus bacteria can be an important quality parameter in future studies of salted-fermented anchovy sauces. Our results suggest a relationship between the chemical characteristics and a dominant bacterial community of Myeolchi-Aekjeot . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Livanjski cheese belongs to the group of hard cheeses which is traditionally produced in Livno (Bosnia and Herzegovina). Proteolytic changes during the ripening of Livanjski cheese have not been investigated extensively. The aim of this paper was to determine its proteolytic changes during the different stages of ripening. Five Livanjski cheeses (from raw cow's or a mixture of sheep's and cow's milk) were observed during the ripening to evaluate its typical proteolytic profile. An electophoretic profile of Livanjski cheese was determined by Urea-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (urea-PAGE) and a densitometric evaluation of the urea-PAGE gels was performed using a densitometer. The water-soluble nitrogen fraction in the total nitrogen (WSN %TN) and the 12%-TCA-soluble nitrogen fraction in the total nitrogen (TCA-SN %TN) of the cheese were determined using the Kjeldahl method. Degradation of αs1-casein by chymosin caused a significant decrease (P < 0.05) of relative content of this protein in Livanjski cheese at the sixth week point of ripening. Due to the activity of chymosin on αs1-casein, αs1-I-casein and αs1-II-casein developed, which caused a significant increase (P < 0.05) of Index alpha. The relative ratio of β-casein significantly decreased (P < 0.05) during ripening leading to a significant accumulation (P < 0.05) of degraded product (sum γ,1-casein, γ,2-casein and γ3-casein). These proteolytic changes caused a significant increase (P < 0.05) of Index betta. Accumulation of medium, small peptides and amino acids caused a significant (P < 0.05) increase of the relative content of WSN %TN and TCA-SN %TN. In general, proteolysis of Livanjski cheese during ripening was moderate probably due to the low moisture content and low water activity, although it was produced from raw milk. Taking into account that the ratio β-casein : αs1-casein at the end of ripening was 1.46, it could be concluded that degradation of αs1-casein could be the indicator of the maturity of Livanjski cheese. Due to that Livanjski cheese could be classified as "α-type of ripening" cheese. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sub-minute capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) method was optimized and a simple sample preparation procedure based on the extraction of the analytes with water and sodium tetraborate was developed for the simultaneous determination of nitrate and nitrite levels in meat products. The background electrolyte (BGE) was composed of 20 mmol L − 1 perchloric acid and 65 mmol L − 1 β-alanine at pH 3.83. Thiocyanate was used as the internal standard. The proposed method was validated and the uncertainty estimated according to Eurachem guidelines. The run time was only 30 s, allowing analyzing more than 25 samples/h, the good analytical performance confirms the suitability of the method for the analysis of meat products. One sample presented residual nitrite levels above the limit established by MERCOSUL legislation (150 mg kg − 1 ). The use of a fast method in association with a simple sample preparation step means that this procedure represents a possible alternative to fulfill the demand for high throughput in routine laboratory analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main disadvantage of DNA-based quantification methods is their inability to distinguish between viable and non-viable cells, as dead cells may also retain a significant amount of DNA. To overcome this limitation, propidium monoazide (PMA) treatment was applied to effectively prevent amplification of DNA from dead cells. The objectives of this study were to develop and evaluate an accurate detection method that combines PMA staining with real-time qPCR to quantify viable dominant microorganisms during the traditional brewing of Hong Qu glutinous rice wine. Firstly, three methodological factors (concentration of PMA, incubation time and photoactivation time) were optimized for representative strains of different microbial species. For the tested microbial strains ( Monascus purpureus , Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Lactobacillus plantarum ), a treatment of 25 μM PMA for 20 min incubation followed by 10 min photoactivation was considered optimal to achieve a compromise between minimal impact on intact cells and maximal signal reduction for the compromised cells. Compared with qPCR without PMA treatment, results of PMA-qPCR showed that the optimized PMA pretreatment can effectively exclude the dead microbial cells without any negative effects on the intact cells. The concentrations of viable cells calculated by PMA-qPCR were comparable (the same order of magnitude was obtained) with those obtained by culture-based method. Finally, the developed PMA-qPCR methods were successfully applied to monitor the total bacteria, LAB, fungi, yeasts, M. purpureus , S. cerevisiae and L. plantarum during the traditional brewing of Hong Qu glutinous rice wine. Both of the total bacterial and fungal populations increased significantly at the early brewing stage, but they decreased at the later brewing stage. PMA-qPCR results revealed that the predominant microorganisms varied in different brewing phases. L. plantarum and S. cerevisiae grew significantly and became the predominant bacterial and fungal species at the final stage of traditional brewing process, respectively. This study standardized the PMA-qPCR parameters for dominant microorganisms associated with the traditional brewing of Hong Qu glutinous rice wine, which would show great value in scientifically understanding of the brewing mechanism and provide useful information for the selection of beneficial microbial strains to improve wine quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is growing evidence regarding the potential properties of nitrate-rich foods in development of chronic diseases. In this study, we investigated the association of nitrate-containing vegetables (NCVs) and the risk of chronic kidney disease (CKD).Methods: We evaluated 1546 eligible adult participants of the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study (TLGS), at baseline (2006–2008) and again after 3 years (2009–2011). Dietary intake was collected using the validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Nitrate-containing vegetables and its categories including high-, medium-, and low-nitrate vegetables were defined. Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and CKD were defined. Association between NCVs and CKD in the cross-sectional phase and the predictability of NCVs consumption in CKD occurrence were assessed using multivariable logistic regression models with adjustment for potential confounders.Results: Mean dietary intake of energy-adjusted NCVs was 298.0 ± 177.3 g/day. Highest compared to the lowest tertile of NCVs was accompanied with a significantly lower mean eGFR (76.6 vs. 83.3, mL/min/1.73 m2,p < 0.001) and a higher prevalence of CKD (21.7 vs. 9.9%,p < 0.001). At baseline, higher intake of high-NCVs was associated with a 48% higher chance of having CKD (OR = 1.48, 95% CI = 1.05–2.13). After 3 years of follow-up, there was no significant association between consumption of total NCVs and its categories with the occurrence of CKD.Conclusion: Considering the lack of association between high-NCVs intakes and the risk of CKD in prospective analysis, additional research is recommended to clarify possible effect of nitrate intakes from vegetables on kidney function. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Effects of combined use of black barberry (Berberis crataegina L.) extract and sodium nitrite on the quality and shelf life of cooked beef sausages were investigated. Different concentrations of the extract (30, 60 and 90 mg kg-1) in combination with nitrite (30, 60 and 90 mg kg-1) were added to sausage formulations. Total viable counts, pH, proximate analysis, residual nitrite level, lipid oxidation, color and sensory data were studied against the blank and control samples during the storage for 30 days at 4℃. A gradual decrease in the nitrite level was observed during the storage for all samples studied. Samples using the extract from this study showed similar redness but lower lightness when compared to the control sausage sample with 120 mg kg-1 sodium nitrite. Sensory evaluation of the samples indicated similar results to those of the control. Accordingly, there is a potential benefit for partial replacement of sodium nitrite with barberry extract in the cured meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A visible/near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (HSI) system (400–1000 nm) coupled with wavelet analysis was used to determine the total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) contents of prawns during cold storage. Spectral information was denoised by conducting wavelet analysis and uninformative variable elimination (UVE) algorithm, and then three wavelet features (energy, entropy and modulus maxima) were extracted. Quantitative models were established between the wavelet features and the reference TVB-N contents by using three regression algorithms. As a result, the LS-SVM model with modulus maxima features was considered as the best model for determining the TVB-N contents of prawns, with an excellent R P 2 of 0.9547, RMSEP = 0.7213 mg N/100 g and RPD = 4.799. Finally, an image processing algorithm was developed for generating a TVB-N distribution map. This study demonstrated the possibility of applying the HSI imaging system in combination with wavelet analysis to the monitoring of TVB-N values in prawns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the production of sparkling wine by the traditional method a second fermentation inside the bottle is required. To survive in such conditions of high ethanol concentration and high pressure, yeast cells must previously undergo an acclimation process. In this study, we investigated the role of the nitrogen composition during the acclimation phase by measuring growth and fermentative parameters through the second fermentation process. We used eight Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains of different origin to determine the impact of yeast genetic background on the efficiency of the acclimation process. The nitrogen source used in the acclimation media had a strong impact on yeast growth during this phase, but also affected significantly fermentation kinetics during the second fermentation. The yeast strain origin mostly affected the second fermentation kinetics. Surprisingly, the use of a medium rich in amino acids that are precursors of fusel alcohols, although triggered slow growth during the acclimation phase, it increased yeast viability and fitness through the second fermentation. Overall, we demonstrated how the nitrogen composition of the acclimation media impacts on yeast fitness and viability. The modification of the nitrogen composition during this phase is proposed as a tool to optimize yeast performance during the second fermentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of fertilisation rates of nitrogen: 0 (control treatment—no soil fertilisation), 40, 80 and 120 kg/ha and potassium: 0 (control treatment), 120, 150 and 180 kg/ha on the content of anthocyanins, phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity in purple–blue potato cv. ‘Blue Congo’ was examined. Anthocyanins and phenolic acids were identified and quantified by LC–MS and UPLC–PDA. Nitrogen was more effective in increasing the anthocyanin content—their quantity in tubers after nitrogen application was twice as much as that found after potassium application. Among phenolic acids, the dominant one was chlorogenic acid, the content of which significantly increased after nitrogen fertilisation at 120 kg/ha, in line with the increase in total concentration of phenolic acids and antioxidant capacity. The adjustment of nitrogen and potassium fertilisation levels during the growth of purple–blue potatoes seems to be an effective way to increase the expression of polyphenolic compounds in these cultivars. Therefore, fertilisation with N at 120 kg/ha and K at 120 and 150 kg/ha is recommended as a way to improve the content of biologically active compounds and antioxidant properties, and consequently, to enhance the nutritional value and the functionality of purple–blue potatoes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrate in food stuff can be reduced to nitrite and may form nitrosamines which are known as carcinogenic substances. Thus, its concentration has to be controlled by highly sensitive methods. In this work a new and fast differential pulse polarographic (DPP) method is established for the determination of nitrate. According to the reduction potentials V(II) was found most suitable for the reduction of nitrate. The product of this reaction is V(III) and its polarographic peak is high and sharp, it also displays very good performance in regard to reproducibility. Thus, with this method it is possible to determine low concentrations of nitrate. This reaction has been used first time in this work. The optimum conditions for the quantitative reaction between nitrate and V(II) has been studied. This method is applied to potato samples and nitrate is determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unsustainable use of nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) has resulted in the straining of the environment to excess. To improve this situation, a better knowledge of the nutrient flows is necessary. Even though nutrient balances and emissions have been calculated, an illustrative calculation method for the efficient use of nutrients use is still lacking. This article presents a novel methodology for a nutrient footprint, which takes into account 1) the amount of nutrients taken into use as virgin or recycled nutrients and 2) the efficiency of these nutrients utilized in that particular production chain. At the same time, nutrient losses at each life cycle phase are identified. Hence, the nutrient footprint is an indicator which combines the amount of captured nutrients [kg of N and P] for use in the production chain and the share of nutrients utilized [%] either in the product itself or in the entire production chain, accounting also for side-products. The nutrient footprint method is tested using oat flakes and porridge as a case product. The case calculation results reveal a relatively efficient use of the nutrients, as the nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of the production chain for N is 71% and for P 99%. When examining only the NUE of the oat flakes and porridge and excluding the side-products, the nutrient use efficiency is 55% for both N and P. The case calculation also reveals the hotspots for nutrient losses, which were located in the wastewater and food waste treatment. The nutrient footprint methodology seems to have potential in assessing the nutrient balances of food chains as well as other bio-based production chains. It offers information about the nutrient usage and utilization efficiency in a simple and comparable form. This information can not only be used in improving the production chains but also in communicating the importance of the sustainable use of nutrients to decision makers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A nutrient balance approach is often used to quantify losses of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, that contribute to environmental problems such as eutrophication. A nutrient balance generally is computed at farm level, implying that nutrient losses related to pre-farm processes, such as production of purchased feed, are neglected. Using a nutrient balance at farm level to benchmark livestock systems or individual farms that differ in, for example, amount of purchased concentrates, however, may lead to biased conclusions. To determine whether a nutrient balance that accounts for losses during production of purchased feed (i.e. a chain balance from cradle-to-farm-gate) are more suited to benchmark nutrient losses of milk production systems or individual farms than a nutrient balance at farm level, we analysed 19 Irish grass-based dairy farms and 13 Dutch concentrate-based dairy farms. For each farm, we computed nitrogen and phosphorus losses at farm and chain level (i.e. from cradle-to-farm-gate, including losses from purchased feed production), and expressed these losses per ton fat-and-protein-corrected milk. An independent T-test and Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney test were used to examine the difference in mean losses at farm and chain level between Irish and Dutch systems. Regression analysis was used to determine if the ranking of the farms changes using a nutrient balance at farm or chain level. Results show that on average, Irish farms had higher nitrogen losses per ton milk than Dutch farms, both at farm (Irish = 20; Dutch = 8 in kg N/ton milk) and chain level (Irish = 22; Dutch = 11 in kg N/ton milk). Phosphorus losses per ton milk, on the other hand, did not differ between Irish and Dutch farms at farm (Irish = 0.3; Dutch = 0.1 in kg P/ton milk) or chain level (Irish = 0.8; Dutch = 1.0 in kg P/ton milk). Regression analysis revealed that the nutrient balance at chain level could be accurately predicted from the nutrient balance at farm level (R 2 = 0.992 for N; R 2 = 0.910 for P); whereas in case of phosphorus, the slope tended to differ between Irish and Dutch farms (p < 0.10). Ranking 32 farms based on the nitrogen balance at farm or chain level, therefore, showed a similar pattern, whereas the ranking pattern based on the phosphorus farm balance differed from the pattern based on the chain balance. We concluded, therefore, that to benchmark nutrient losses of dairy systems, a nutrient balance at farm level can be used if differences in on-farm losses between systems are large, and pre-farm losses related to, e.g. production of purchased concentrates, are relatively unimportant. To benchmark individual farms, a nutrient balance at farm level can be used only if changes in pre-farm losses per unit change in on-farm losses are similar across farms. A chain level balance of a sample set, however, is required to verify these conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The identification of odor-active sulfur and nitrogen compounds formed during the processing of dry fermented sausages was the objective of this study. In order to elucidate their possible origin, free amino acids (FAAs) were also determined. The volatile compounds present in the dry sausages were extracted using solvent assisted flavor evaporation (SAFE) and monitored by one and two-dimensional gas chromatography with different detectors: mass spectrometry (MS), nitrogen phosphorous (NPD), flame photometric (FPD) detectors, as well as gas chromatography–olfactometry. A total of seventeen sulfur and nitrogen compounds were identified and quantified. Among them, 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline was the most potent odor active compound, followed by methional, ethylpyrazine and 2,3-dihydrothiophene characterized by toasted, cooked potato, and nutty notes. The degradation of FAAs, generated during processing, was related to the production of aroma compounds, such as methionine forming methional and benzothiazole while ornithine was the precursor compound for 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline and glycine for ethylpyrazine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein content of any source is classically determined through the analysis of its nitrogen content done for more 100 years by the Kjeldahl method, and the obtained result is multiplied by a number named nitrogen conversion factor (NCF). The value of NCF is related to the amino acid composition of the protein source and to the eventual presence of side groups covalently bound to some amino acids of the protein chain. Consequently, the value of NCF cannot be identical for all sources of food proteins. The aim of this paper is to review the available knowledge on the two allowed protein sources for infant food formulas, milk and soybean, in order to bring the right scientific basis which should be used for the revision of both European legislation and Codex Standard for Infant Formulas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrates and nitrites are mainly used in meat products for shelf life extension, to improve flavor and for color fixation. High content of nitrite and nitrate in food can raise concern regarding its undesirable effects on consumer health. In our study the lowest value for N03' content was found in pork sausages, with values ranging from 35.16 mg/kg to 39.82 mg/kg and the lowest value for NO2- content was evidenced in summer sausages, with values between 1.3 mg/kg and 1.42 mg/kg. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nitrite has been used in different meat products mainly to maintain their microbial quality, flavor, and color and to prevent lipid oxidation. Since consumer demand for organic or natural meat products has increased due to the concerns of health risk of synthetic additives, the meat industry is currently focusing on the development of nitrite alternatives. This paper reviews the potential alternatives to replace nitrite salts that are used completely or partially in the manufacturing of meat products. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tibetan sheep inhabit the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, an area characterized by sparse vegetation of low protein content much of the year. Consequently, we predicted that their N requirements for maintenance would be low. To test our prediction, we determined urea kinetics, N balance and requirements for maintenance in five growing wethers (43.0 ± 2.3 kg live weight). A 4 × 4 Latin square design was used with 4 levels of oat hay intakes (0.3, 0.5, 0.7, and 0.9 × voluntary intake), in which each period lasted for 21 days. Urea kinetics was determined using a continuous intrajugular infusion of 15 N 15 N-urea. There was a linear increase in faecal N excretion, urinary N elimination and N retention ( P < 0.01) with an increase in feed intake. From the regression equation generated between daily N retention and daily N intake, the estimated N requirements for maintenance were 0.50 g/kg BW 0.75 per day, that is, only 66% of the amount recommended by NRC for growing sheep of its size. However, it should be noted that the NRC values were for sheep without marked feed restriction. Urea-N entry rate (UER), gastrointestinal tract (GIT) entry rate (GER), return to ornithine cycle (ROC) and faecal urea-N excretion all increased linearly ( P < 0.01) with an increase in DMI. The ratio of UER to apparent digestible N intake increased linearly from 1.53 to 2.99 with a decrease in feed intake. The proportion of UER that entered the gut did not differ ( P > 0.05) among intakes and ranged between 0.52 and 0.61. GER used for anabolism decreased ( P < 0.01) from 0.45 to 0.28, whereas GER to ROC increased linearly ( P < 0.01) from 0.51 to 0.68 with increasing DMI. Glomerular filtration rate increased ( P < 0.05) with increasing DMI, but urinary creatinine excretion and plasma urea-N concentrations remained constant ( P > 0.05). The proportion of renal urea-N reabsorbed increased linearly with a decrease in DMI ( P < 0.05) while GIT urea-N clearance was always higher than kidney urea-N clearance. The low N requirements demonstrated by the Tibetan sheep supported our prediction. The increase in renal urea-N absorption rate with a decrease in nitrogen and feed intake, the greater ratios of UER to apparent digestible N intake and the greater GIT urea-N clearance to kidney urea-N clearance, regardless of N intake explain, at least in part, how Tibetan sheep cope with low nitrogen intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The leaching behavior of organic carbon and nutrient compounds from banana peel (BP) was investigated in batch assays with respect to particle size, contact time, pH value, and temperature. The granularity, contact time, pH, and temperature caused no significant effects on the leaching of total phosphorus (TP) from the BP. The maximum leached total nitrogen (TN) content was found at pH 5.0 and 90 minutes, while no significant effects were caused by the granularity and temperature. The maximum leached total organic carbon (TOC) content was found by using a powder of 40 mesh, 150 minutes and at pH 6.0, while the temperature had no effect on the TOC leaching. The proportions of the TN, TP, and TOC contents leached from the dried BP ranged from 33.6% to 40.9%, 60.4% to 72.7%, and 8.2% to 9.9%, respectively, indicating that BP could be a potential pollution source for surface and ground water if discharged as domestic waste or reutilized without pretreatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stable isotope analysis is frequently applied as a tool to examine dietary patterns in animals. However, some of the underlying assumptions associated with using this approach are increasingly being questioned. We carried out a controlled diet experiment on the southern African spiny mouse ( Acomys spinosissimus Peters, 1852) to test a number of aspects relating to these assumptions and also examine the hypothesis that stable isotopes, especially δ15N, can be used to provide evidence of nutritional stress. We compared the δ13C and δ15N values of livers and blood from animals that were fed ad libitum with animals undergoing a 10% reduction in food supply. Food-restricted animals showed no significant difference in δ15N; however, δ13C values of both liver and blood were depleted. Restricted animals also had a significantly lower C:N ratio. We examined the role of lipids and found following lipid extraction that both livers and lipids still showed the same separation in carbon values. Tissue-diet discrimination values were also calculated and found to be higher for both Δ13C and Δ15N compared with other mice species. Empirical values for discrimination rates were then compared with values calculated using an alternative method based on employing generic values and were found to be dissimilar, suggesting the use of generic values are not always appropriate. Our results highlight the need for greater understanding of the assumptions associated with using stable isotope analysis to examine diet and we suggest that studying a single species under captive conditions presents an ideal method to begin to test these hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work, in order to discriminate the geographical origin of wheat, δ 13 C and δ 15 N values of 35 wheat samples originated from different regions were determined, using the method of element analyser–stable isotope ratio mass spectrometry. The results indicated that wheat from Australia, the USA, Canada and China could be potentially discriminated by using analyte δ 13 C and δ 15 N. δ 13 C values of wheat were ranged from −25.647‰ to −22.326‰, the δ 15 N values of 35 wheat samples were calculated between 1.859‰ and 7.712‰. Moreover, the results illustrated regional distributions of δ 15 N values of wheat as Australia > The USA > Jiangsu province of China > Shandong province of China > Canada. So δ 13 C and δ 15 N analysis would be potentially useful for rapid and routine analyses of geographical origin of wheat, even the cereal grains. In order to confirm the discrimination capability of δ 13 C and δ 15 N, a follow-up work will use this method to analyse a larger set of samples. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of the physicochemical characteristics on the moisture diffusion of tobacco was studied. In this research, the physical structure (specific surface area and pore volume) and major chemical components (total nitrogen, protein, pectin, starch, water-soluble sugar, and total sugar) of tobacco were determined. The effective diffusion coefficient of tobacco ranged from 0.5 × 10−14to 6.5 × 10−14m2s−1depending on environment humidity (RH = 33, 43, 75, 83%) at 30°C. This coefficient was significantly affected by the pectin, total sugar, and water-soluble sugar content and specific pore volume of tobacco during desorption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]