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The objective of our study was to evaluate the effects of altering the dietary ratio of palmitic (C16:0) and oleic (cis-9 C18:1) acids on nutrient digestibility, energy partitioning, and production responses of lactating dairy cows. Cows were blocked by milk yield and assigned to 3 groups (12 cows per group) in a main plot: low (45.2 ± 1.7 kg/d), medium (53.0 ± 1.6 kg/d), and high (60.0 ± 1.9 kg/d). Within each production group, a truncated Latin square arrangement of fatty acid (FA) treatments was used in 2 consecutive 35-d periods. The FA treatments supplemented at 1.5% of diet dry matter were (1) 80:10 (80% C16:0 + 10% cis-9 C18:1), (2) 73:17 (73% C16:0 + 17% cis-9 C18:1), (3) 66:24 (66% C16:0 + 24% cis-9 C18:1), and (4) 60:30 (60% C16:0 + 30% cis-9 C18:1). Treatment × production group interactions were observed for yields of milk, fat-corrected milk, energy-corrected milk, milk fat, milk protein, and milk lactose and energy partitioned to milk. Increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments reduced fat-corrected milk, energy-corrected milk, and milk energy output in low-producing cows but increased these in high-producing cows. Increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments did not affect milk yield, milk protein yield, and milk lactose yield in low- and medium-producing cows but increased these in high-producing cows. Regardless of production level, there was no effect of treatments on dry matter intake; however, increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments increased body weight change and body condition score change. Increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments increased total FA digestibility due to a linear increase in 16- and 18-carbon FA digestibilities. Interactions between FA treatments and production level were observed for the yield of milk fat and milk FA sources. In low-producing cows, increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments decreased milk fat yield due to a decrease in de novo and mixed milk FA without changes in preformed milk FA. In contrast, in high-producing cows, increasing cis-9 C18:1 in FA treatments increased milk fat yield due to an increase in de novo and preformed milk FA. Our results indicate that high-producing dairy cows (averaging 60 kg/d) responded better to a fat supplement containing more cis-9 C18:1, whereas low-producing cows (averaging 45 kg/d) responded better to a supplement containing more C16:0.

Eighteen multiparous cows were used in a split-plot replicated Latin square with two 28-d periods to evaluate the effects of source of supplemental Cu, Zn, and Mn (sulfates or hydroxy) on apparent absorption of minerals when fed in either a forage- or by-product-based diet. The by-product diets were formulated to have greater concentrations of NDF and lesser concentrations of starch, and specific ingredients were chosen because they were good sources of soluble fiber and β-glucans, which bind trace minerals in nonruminants. We hypothesized that hydroxy trace minerals would interact less with digesta and have greater apparent absorption compared with sulfate minerals, and the difference in apparent absorption would be greater for the by-product diet compared with the forage-based diet. During the 56-d experiment, cows remained on the same fiber treatment but source of supplemental trace mineral was different for each 28-d period; thus, all cows were exposed to both mineral treatments. During each period cows were fed no supplemental Cu, Zn, or Mn for 16 d, followed by 12 d of feeding supplemental minerals from either sulfate or hydroxy sources. Supplemental minerals for each of the mineral sources fed provided approximately 10, 35, and 32 mg/kg of supplemental Cu, Zn, and Mn, respectively, for both fiber treatments. Total Cu, Zn, and Mn dietary concentrations, respectively, were approximately 19, 65, and 70 mg/kg for the forage diets and 21, 85, and 79 for the by-product diets. Treatment had no effect on dry matter intake (24.2 kg/d) or milk production (34.9 kg/d). Cows consuming the by-product diets had greater Zn (1,863 vs. 1,453 mg/d) and Mn (1,790 vs. 1,588 mg/d) intake compared with cows fed forage diets, but apparent Zn absorption was similar between treatments. Manganese apparent absorption was greater for the by-product diets compared with the forage diets (16 vs. 11%). A fiber by mineral interaction was observed for Cu apparent absorption, as cows fed hydroxy minerals with forage diets had greater apparent absorption compared with cows fed sulfate minerals; however, the opposite was observed with the by-product diets. Source of supplemental trace minerals and type of fiber in diets affected availability of Cu and Mn and should be considered in ration formulation.

Within-farm variation in forage composition can be substantial and potentially costly, and it presents challenges for sampling the forage accurately. We hypothesized that day-to-day variation in forage neutral detergent fiber (FNDF) concentrations and diet variation caused by sampling error would have negative effects on production measures in lactating dairy cows. Twenty-four Holstein cows (73d in milk) were used in 8 replicated 3×3 Latin squares with 21-d periods. Treatments were (1) control (CON), (2) variable (VAR), and (3) overreacting (ORR). On average, over the 21-d period, all 3 treatments were the same [24.7% FNDF and 48.2% forage dry matter (DM) composed of 67% alfalfa silage and 33% grass silage]. The CON treatment was essentially consistent day-to-day in total forage and FNDF concentrations and proportion of alfalfa and grass silages. The VAR treatment changed daily (in a random pattern) in proportion of alfalfa and grass silages fed, which resulted in day-to-day changes in FNDF (range was 21.5 to 28%). The ORR treatment varied in a 5-d cyclic pattern in total forage and FNDF concentrations (26, 24, 28, and 21.5% FNDF). Over the 21d, ORR (25.1kg/d) had higher DM intake compared with CON (24.5kg/d) and VAR (24.3kg/d). Milk production (42.8kg/d), milk fat (3.5%), and milk protein (2.8%) were not affected by treatment; however, a treatment × day interaction was observed for milk production. Lower daily milk yields for VAR and ORR compared with CON were rare; they only followed sustained 4- and 5-d periods of feeding higher FNDF diets compared with CON. In contrast, increased daily milk yields for VAR and ORR versus CON were more frequent and followed sustained diet changes of only 2 or 3d. Lipolytic and lipogenic-related enzyme mRNA abundances in subcutaneous adipose tissue were not affected by treatment. Treatment × day interactions were observed for milk fatty acid markers of cellulolytic bacteria ( iso- 14:0, iso- 15:0, iso -16:0) and lipolysis (18:0) and generally followed the expected response to changes in daily rations. Overall, extreme daily fluctuations in FNDF had no cumulative negative effect on production measures over a 21-d period, and daily responses to transient increases in FNDF were less than expected.

Thirty-nine commercial dairies in Merced County, California were enrolled in the present study to (1) compare lactating cow mineral intakes (via drinking water and total mixed ration) to the National Research Council (NRC) requirements, (2) evaluate the association between dietary concentrations of minerals with and without drinking water and adjusted for mineral concentrations in milk, and (3) compare 4 different methods to estimate excretion of minerals using either assays or estimations of milk mineral outputs and total daily mineral intake per cow with or without minerals coming from drinking water. Dairies were selected to represent a range of herd milk yields and a range of water mineral contents. Samples of total mixed ration, drinking water, and bulk tank milk were taken on 2 different days, 3 to 7d apart in each farm. Across-farm medians and percentile distributions were used to analyze results. The herd median milk yield interquartile ranged (10th to 90th percentile) from less than 25 to more than 39 kg/d and the concentration of total solids in water interquartile ranged from less than 200 to more than 1,490 mg/L. Including drinking water minerals in the diets increased dietary concentrations by

The effects of forage source, concentration of metabolizable protein (MP), type of carbohydrate, and their interactions on nutrient digestibility and production were evaluated using a central composite treatment design. All diets (dry basis) contained 50% forage that ranged from 25:75 to 75:25 alfalfa silage:corn silage. Rumen-degradable protein comprised 10.7% of the dry matter (DM) in all diets, but undegradable protein ranged from 4.1 to 7.1%, resulting in dietary MP concentrations of 8.8 to 12.0% of the DM. Dietary starch ranged from 22 to 30% of the DM with a concomitant decrease in neutral detergent fiber concentrations. A total of 15 diets were fed to 36 Holstein cows grouped in 6 blocks. Each block consisted of three 21-d periods, and each cow was assigned a unique sequence of 3 diets, resulting in 108 observations. Milk production and composition, feed intake, and digestibility of major nutrients (via total collection of feces and urine) were measured. Few significant interactions between main effects were observed. Starch concentration had only minor effects on digestibility and production. Replacing corn silage with alfalfa decreased digestibility of N but increased digestibility of neutral detergent fiber. Increasing the concentration of MP increased N digestibility. The concentration (Mcal/kg) of dietary digestible energy (DE) increased linearly as starch concentration increased (very small effect) and was affected by a forage by MP interaction. At low MP, high alfalfa reduced DE concentration, but at high MP, increasing alfalfa increased DE concentration. Increasing alfalfa increased DM and DE intakes, which increased yields of energy-corrected milk, protein, and fat. Increasing MP increased yields of energy-corrected milk and protein. The response in milk protein to changes in MP was much less than predicted using the National Research Council (2001) model.

Effects of forage source, concentration of metabolizable protein (MP), and type of carbohydrate on manure excretion by dairy cows and production of ammonia from that manure were evaluated using a central composite experimental design. All diets (dry basis) contained 50% forage that ranged from 25:75 to 75:25 alfalfa silage:corn silage. Diets contained 10.7% rumen-degradable protein with variable concentrations of undegradable protein so that dietary MP ranged from 8.8 to 12%. Starch concentration ranged from 22 to 30% with a concomitant decrease in neutral detergent fiber. A total of 15 diets were fed to 36 Holstein cows grouped in 6 blocks. Each block was a replicated 3 x 3 Latin square resulting in 108 observations. Manure output (urine and feces) was measured using total collection, and fresh feces and urine were combined into slurries and incubated for 48 h to measure NH3-N production. Feces, urine, and manure output averaged 50.5, 29.5, and 80.1 kg/d, respectively. Manure output increased with increasing dry matter intake (approximately 3.5 kg of manure/kg of dry matter intake), increased concentrations of alfalfa (mostly via changes in urine output), and decreased concentrations of starch (mostly via changes in fecal output). The amount of NH3-N produced per gram of manure decreased with increasing alfalfa because excreted N shifted from urine to feces. Increasing MP increased NH3-N produced per gram of manure mainly because of increased urinary N, but increased fecal N also contributed to the manure NH3. Manure NH3-N production per cow (accounts for effects on manure production and NH3-N produced per unit of manure) was least and milk protein yields were maximal for diets with high alfalfa (75% of the forage), moderate MP (11% of diet dry matter), and high starch (30% of diet dry matter).

A large project involving commercial dairy farms was undertaken to identify important sources of variation in composition data of common feeds and mixed diets. This information is needed to develop appropriate sampling schedules for feeds and should reduce the uncertainty associated with the nutrient composition of delivered diets. The first subproject quantified sources of variation in the composition of corn and haycrop silages over a 2-wk period. Silages from 11 commercial dairy farms in Ohio and Vermont were sampled daily over a 14-d period. Most silages were sampled in duplicate each day, and all samples were assayed in duplicate. Total variance was partitioned into analytical, sampling, farm, and true day-to-day components. Farm was the largest source of variation, but within-farm variance was our primary interest. Sampling variance comprised 30 to 81% of within-farm variance depending on nutrient and type of silage. For dry matter, true day-to-day variation was the greatest source of variance, but for most other nutrients, sampling was the largest source of within-farm variation. The second subproject consisted of sampling feeds and total mixed rations (TMR) from 47 commercial dairy farms across the United States. Feeds and TMR were sampled monthly. Because samples were not assayed in duplicate, source of variation included farm, month, and residual (sampling plus analytical). For corn and alfalfa silages, month-to-month variation over a 12-mo period comprised about twice as much of the total within-farm variation as did day-to-day variation over a 14-d period in the first subproject. Although month-to-month variation was greater than sampling variation, sampling still accounted for 9 to 37% of the total within-farm variance for those 2 feeds. For TMR, sampling plus analytical variance accounted for approximately 40 to 70% of the total within-farm variance (depending on the nutrient). Variance components were estimated for several nutrients and for several common feeds. The contributions to total variance differed depending on feed and nutrient, but the information provided will help in determining whether on-farm samples should be taken and if so, how often. A major implication of this project is that sampling is a substantial source of variation in silages, concentrates, and TMR, and data from a single sample are likely not highly reliable.

A model using concentrations of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), lignin, crude protein (CP), ash, fatty acids or ether extract, and acid and neutral detergent insoluble crude protein, was developed for predicting total digestible nutrients (TDN) of feeds. The model incorporates theoretical digestion coefficients for CP, lipid, and non-fiber carbohydrate. Digestibility of NDF was estimated using a surface area model based on the lignin encrustation theory. The digestible amount of each nutrient was summed and then a term describing metabolic fecal TDN was subtracted. The model was tested on an independent set of 248 feeds (including forages and concentrates). The mean square error for all feeds was 61 g TDN kg−1 dry matter which is comparable with the error term for in vivo digestion data. The model was equally accurate and precise for forages and concentrate feeds.

In the current study, commercial broiler breeder hens were mated with either commercial broiler breeder males (B/B) or artificially inseminated with semen from Leghorn cockerels (B/L). Embryos and chicks from each mating were used to study the effects of paternal genotype on breast muscle myosin expression without the confounding effects of differences in egg size and embryo development due to maternal genotype. Specifically, the temporal transitions of myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms within the pectoralis (P.) major and P. minor were measured. The relative concentration of the embryonic MyHC isoform increased from d 17 through 21 in ovo in both genotypes and was higher in B/B embryos than in B/L embryos (Por = 0.01). At 21 d posthatch, there was an increased proportion of the adult MyHC isoform within the P. major and P. minor in B/B compared with B/L chicks (Por = 0.01). This result suggests that the B/B chicks were making the transition to mature skeletal muscle more rapidly than the B/L chicks. Although samples taken from the P. minor of B/B and B/ L chicks exhibited an increased proportion of the adult MyHC isoform and lower proportion of the neonatal MyHC isoform at 21 d, the genetic differences were far more pronounced in the larger P. major (Por = 0.01). In summary, the P. major from the faster growing B/B chicks exhibited earlier temporal transitions of developmental fast MyHC, and these differences were evident as early as 17 d in ovo.

Ration formulation by linear programming techniques assumes a perfect knowledge of all coefficients involved. Because of variation in composition of feedstuffs, this assumption cannot hold in practical situations. However, the problem can be reformulated as a chance-constrained programming model for which a deterministic equivalent can be derived. In the case where only one nutrient is considered random, the methodology is labeled as single-chance constrained programming. The exact deterministic equivalent requires nonlinear programming methods for which algorithms are not available to the feed industry. Three linear approximation algorithms were derived and compared with the exact solution given by nonlinear programming in the formulation of a premix feed. Prices from 1970 to 1979 for 17 feed ingredients were used. An algorithm based on a linear function of the standard deviation of the random nutrient within each feedstuff, for which a penalty parameter is iterated in a search for a desired probability, yielded results very similar to the exact solutions found by nonlinear programming methods. This methodology could be implemented easily by the feed industry.

Chance constrained programming methodology, which accounts for uncertainty in composition of feedstuffs, was applied to a total mixed ration set for a 650-kg cow producing 27.2kg of milk/d. Available ingredients were legumegrass hay, legume-grass silage, corn silage, high moisture ground ear corn, soybean meal, dry fat, and a mineral mix. Four models were derived and their performances were compared when both net energy for lactation and crude protein were considered as random constraints. A model based on a Bonferroni inequality with unequal weight on rows' probability appeared to be best over the range of probability considered (.5 to .95). The value of a feed analysis program was assessed by reducing variances in composition of farm-grown ingredients to those equivalent to a coefficient of variation of 3%. Also, an approximate method was derived for assessing the optimal rate of success. It appears that the optimal rate of success is close to .6 and is not greatly affected by a feed analysis program or a change in price of milk. However, such a program increases income over feed cost by an estimated 27 e/cow per d.

Nutritive value of corn silage harvested before and after frost was evaluated through 12 lactating Holstein cows during five 14-day periods in a feeding and digestibility trial. Silages from corn harvested at milk stage, dough stage, and after one, two, and six frosts were evaluated with control corn silage at dough stage. Concentrate feed made up 30% of the ration dry matter. Percentages of dry matter, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, acid detergent lignin, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium varied among silages. There was no significant difference of dry matter intake or of nutrient digestibility of the control silage among the five periods, indicating no time change. Production of 4% fat-corrected milk decreased steadily 9% per mo. For milk stage, dough stage, and after one, two, and six frosts, respective intakes of dry matter were 15.1, 16.3, 14.9, 16.6, 14.7 kg/day; 4% fat-corrected milk yields were 17.7, 18.1, 17.8, 17.6, 17.5 kg/day; and milk fat was 3.5, 3.6, 3.4, 3.2, and 3.3%. The partitioning of energy, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium favored the feeding of corn silage harvested after two frosts. Apparent digestibilities of dry matter, energy, and nitrogen were reduced by frost for corn harvested as silage after frost.

The deleterious effect of frost on corn harvested for silage was investigated with 30 lactating Holstein cows fed silages from corn harvested at the milk or dough stage, or after one, two, or five frosts. The fibrous components of the corn plant increased as maturity and dry matter content increased, whereas the mineral content tended to decrease. Dry matter intake and 4% fat-corrected milk increased as maturity of the silage increased up to the silage harvested after two frosts and then declined for the silage harvested after five frosts. Gross energy apparent digestibility decreased from 64.9% for milk stage silage to 60.6% for silage from corn harvested after five frosts. Partitioning of gross energy, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium provided similar increasing trends in feed intake, utilization, and milk production from milk stage silage to that harvested after two frosts, then a decline of all measurements occurred with silage harvested after five frosts. Net energy for lactation was calculated for each silage from the observed digestible energy, from a regression equation used by the provincial feed evaluation laboratories, and from a recently published summative equation; the latter method appeared best.