Search

フランス啓蒙主義時代の哲学者ドゥニ・ディドロは、その絵画批評のなかでたびたび、「絵画のなかに入り込み、歩き回る、あるいは旅をするという体裁で描写する」ことを行なっている。それは、読者の想像力と趣味（goût）を通して、情景を再構成せしめるための修辞法であった。本論文では、ディドロによる「サロン評」のうち、とりわけ風景画の記述における「絵の中に入り込」み、「絵の中を歩く」描写に着目し、分析と考察を行う。これを、18世紀のテクストと絵画経験における「散歩」や「歩行」というテーマ系の中に位置づけることが、ここでの目的である。 まず、ディドロ「サロン評」の風景画記述の総体を踏まえて、特徴的と思われる部分を抽出する。次に、「歩行」をめぐる同時代の特徴的なテクストとの比較を行う。エクフラシス（視覚芸術の言葉による描写）という修辞学的伝統をはみ出して、「テクスト内空間の想像的な歩行」を行うディドロの絵画批評がその特徴的な一例をなすような、18世紀の思想的基盤を明らかにするのが、本論文の目的にして意義である。

Healthcare students are key resources after nuclear disasters. Healthcare students at Fukushima Medical University volunteered after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima nuclear accident. At the time of the disaster, healthcare students, who were in a position between medical and non-medical people, listened to the various concerns and worries of victims. Specifically, they established the Fukushima WILL – a disaster medical club. These activities have continued for about 10 years after the Fukushima disaster. In this paper, we introduce lessons from and perspectives for healthcare student volunteer activities during disasters. When volunteering, healthcare students needed to acquire sufficient medical knowledge and skills as well as display effective communication skills considering the background of the affected people. In addition, to respond to potential future disasters, healthcare students need to proactively, independently, and repeatedly learn about diseases that are likely to occur in shelters and how to prevent them. Seminars and workshops should be implemented to ensure students are taught these lessons and provided daily training on disaster response.

We propose a method to measure the electron electric dipole moment (eEDM) using ultracold entangled francium (Fr) atoms trapped in an optical lattice, yielding an uncertainty below the standard quantum limit. Among the alkali atoms, Fr offers the largest enhancement factor to the eEDM. With a Fr based experiment, quantum sensing using quantum entangled states could enable a search for the eEDM at a level below 10−30 ecm. We estimate statistical and systematic errors attached to the proposed measurement scheme based on this quantum sensing technique. A successful quantum sensing of the eEDM could enable the exploration of new physics beyond the standard model of particle physics.

Study question What is the perinatal outcome of pregnancies resulting from a controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH) regimen of progestin-primed ovarian stimulation (PPOS) protocol using dienogest (DNG) in patients with endometriosis? Summary answer No difference in mean birth weight, however preterm and low birth weight babies are significantly more in the group treated with PPOS using DNG. What is known already Dienogest is an oral progestin effective for the treatment of endometriosis, such as reduction of endometrial lesion and control of pain intensity with safety profile and good tolerability. We reported for the first time in the world that DNG was better than dydrogesterone (DYG) for PPOS in terms of the mature oocytes rate and the fertilization rate in patients with endometriosis. Although there have been several reports of infants born with PPOS using DYG, it is essential to report on the perinatal outcome of embryos transferred after treatment with PPOS using DNG from now on. Study design, size, duration: We prospectively investigated the perinatal outcomes of 65 newborns which were the result of using a new COH regimen; PPOS with DNG. The results were compared with perinatal outcome data of babies born between 2018 and 2020 to 815 patients who underwent assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatment at our fertility center. As for the congenital malformation rate, the data was also compared with the 2017 Japanese data bank of babies born after ART treatment. Participants/materials, setting, methods We studied the perinatal data of all babies born after transfer of frozen embryos acquired by COH using PPOS protocol with DNG. The rate of maternal complications during pregnancy, pregnancy duration, birth weight, congenital malformations and method of delivery were investigated. We compared the perinatal outcomes of infants born after in vitro fertilization (IVF) and frozen embryo transfer at our center during the same period. Main results and the role of chance Perinatal data of 65 babies (study group) were compared with the perinatal data of 840 babies born after IVF at our center, and 47807 babies born after ART in Japan, 2017. We found 3 twin and 59 singleton pregnancies in the study group, compared to 23 twins, 1 triplet and 791 singleton pregnancies during the same period at our center. Considering singletons, there was no difference in mean birthweight (study group; 2893.2±652g vs. total at our center; 3001.2±425g, respectively, p = 0.102). Preterm births ( Limitations, reasons for caution The number of babies is still low, further prospective studies including larger populations are needed to confirm the efficacy of PPOS protocol with DNG. Wider implications of the findings: This is the first report on the perinatal outcome of babies born by a new COH method using PPOS with DNG, which is a combination of endometriosis treatment and COH for IVF. The association of endometriosis with preterm birth and low birth weight needs to be further investigated. Trial registration number UMIN000031111

Ions with similar charge-to-mass ratios cannot be separated from existing beam profile monitors (BPMs) in nuclear facilities in which low-energy radioactive ions are produced due to nuclear fusion reactions. In this study, we developed a BPM using a microchannel plate and a charge-coupled device to differentiate the beam profiles of alpha-decaying radioactive isotopes from other ions (reaction products) produced in a nuclear reaction. This BPM was employed to optimize the low-energy radioactive francium ion (Fr+) beam developed at the Cyclotron and Radioisotope Center (CYRIC), Tohoku University, for electron permanent electric dipole moment (e-EDM) search experiments using Fr atoms. We demonstrated the performance of the BPM by separating the Fr+ beam from other reaction products produced during the nuclear fusion reaction of an oxygen (18O) beam and gold (197Au) target. However, as the mass of Au is close to that of Fr, separating the ions of these elements using a mass filter is a challenge, and a dominant number of Au+ renders the Fr+ beam profile invisible when using a typical BPM. Therefore, by employing the new BPM, we could successfully observe the Fr+ beam and other ion beams distinctly by measuring the alpha decay of Fr isotopes. This novel technique to monitor the alpha-emitting radioactive beam covers a broad range of lifetimes, for example, from approximately 1 s to 10 min, and can be implemented for other alpha-emitter beams utilized for medical applications., Comment: 7 pages, 8 figures

In Japan, research activities by junior and senior high school students show an upward trend. However, there are limited examples of research activities in the field of elementary particles and atoms. This is due to the difficulty associated with procuring research tools such as accelerators or particle detectors. Therefore, we hosted the "Accel Kitchen" in 2018 and 2019 at Cyclotron and Radioisotope Center (CYRIC) in Tohoku University where junior and senior high school students could participate in ongoing research of particle and atomic physics. At each workshop, 12 junior and senior high school students participated in the beam experiment, including the production of francium atoms (Fr) by the fusion reaction of oxygen and gold, optimizing the transport of the ion beam and identifying the alpha decay nuclei, and laser trapping of Fr for two days. Each group that was involved in the experiment was supported by researchers and university students who acted as mentors. This was the first opportunity for junior and senior high school students to know about the particle beam experiment in Japan., Comment: 8 pages, 18 figure

We developed a laser frequency stabilization and an optical fiber transmission system for the the francium electric dipole moment search. The absolute accuracy of a laser frequency stabilization scheme using a state-of-the-art commercial wavelength meter was 0.48 MHz at ±2 nm and -1.33 MHz at ±200 nm from calibration wavelength, respectively, and the frequency instability is below 10-9 with a standard deviation of 0.56 MHz over 60 hours. We also demonstrated that a 400 m long fiber laid between laboratories can transmit 30 mW of trapping laser light, which is sufficient for a magneto-optical trapping of francium. The polarization crosstalk in the fiber was stable at -25 dB over 12 hours of measurement.

In microwave tomography, it is necessary to increase the amount of diverse observation data for accurate image reconstruction of the dielectric properties of the imaging area. The multi-polarization method has been proposed as a suitable technique for the acquisition of a variety of observation data. While the effectiveness of employing multi-polarization to reconstruct images has been confirmed, the physical considerations related to image reconstruction have not been investigated. In this paper, a compact-sized imaging sensor using multi-polarization for breast cancer detection is presented. An analysis of the correlation coefficient of the received data of adjacent antennas was performed to interpret the imaging results. Numerical simulation results demonstrated that multi-polarization can reconstruct images better compared to single polarizations owing to its low correlation coefficient and condition number.

Objective Previous studies have shown that enolase-1 (ENO1) in the stratum corneum (SC) is more highly expressed in patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) than in healthy individuals, suggesting that it is a novel biomarker for evaluating skin condition in patients with AD. However, the mechanism underlying high ENO1 expression in the SC and its pathological relevance in AD are unclear. In this study, the relationship between ENO1 expression and keratinization of epidermis was investigated, and the role of high ENO1 expression in keratinocytes was characterized. Methods ENO1 expression and morphological characteristics were examined in SC from the cheeks of 24 patients with AD. Additionally, the localization of ENO1 in the excised human epidermis was observed. Moreover, to analyse the role of ENO1 in cellular barrier function, tight junction proteins (TJs) and transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) in keratinocytes with ENO1 overexpression were evaluated. Furthermore, the localization of ENO1 and plasminogen in keratinocytes was evaluated by immunostaining, and the cellular barrier function in keratinocytes was examined after treatment with tranexamic acid (TXA). Results ENO1 expression was substantially correlated with the rate of nucleated corneocytes in AD. In addition, ENO1 localized in the basal to spinous layers, but was its expression dramatically decreased in healthy human SC. ENO1 overexpression in human epidermal keratinocytes reduced the expression of TJs (claudin-4, E-cadherin, tricellulin, and occludin) and TEER, and treatment with anti-ENO1 IgG reversed these effects. ENO1 colocalized with plasminogen in keratinocytes. Treatment with TXA rescued the ENO1-induced reductions in TJ and TEER expression. Conclusion We found a substantial correlation between ENO1 expression and the rate of nucleated corneocytes in AD and decreased ENO1 expression with nuclear disappearance. These results suggest that high ENO1 expression in the SC of AD is caused by deficient keratinization, which is an AD characteristic. Moreover, ENO1 overexpression in keratinocytes promoted dysfunction of TJ dynamics, leading to reduced integrity of the cellular barrier, and these effects might be mediated by plasmin activity. We propose that ENO1 is a useful indicator of parakeratosis and might have a potential role in cellular TJ barrier function in the epidermis.

This article examined generational inequity in social spending between the elderly and children using both country-level aggregate and household-level survey data. We calculated the allocation of social spending towards the elderly and children in 13 OECD countries based on OECD Social Expenditure Database (SOCX). We also presented the age-profile of social transfers for the same countries utilizing data from the Luxembourg Income Study (LIS). The results showed that the allocation of social spending in the United States was tilted toward the elderly compared to other countries. Policy implications for the United States are further discussed.

This study investigated the economic conditions of female-headed households in Taiwan and compared them with those in the United States and Sweden in 2000. At the descriptive level, we investigated the socioeconomic backgrounds of the households, the rate of poverty, distributive effects of public and private transfers, and Gini coefficients at each stage of income distribution. We then conducted logistic regression analyses of the poverty rate at the last stage of income distribution. The major finding was that within the context of a small welfare state, Taiwan had the lowest poverty rate before transfers and the second lowest poverty rate after transfers of the three countries we studied. Moreover, at the last stage of income distribution, only two independent variables (education and work status of the household head) affected the poverty rate. We conclude that Taiwan, as one of the developmental welfare regimes in Asia, had created a different way of enhancing the economic wellbeing of female-headed ...

This article reports on a study of the extent to which the gap between women and men’s income levels narrow down in Korea and the United States when social insurance benefits, non-social insurance public transfers, and private transfers are distributed in incremental ways. The major findings were that transfer activities are still in their infancy in Korea compared with the United States; gender-based gaps do not narrow down in Korea to the same extent as they do in the United States; and in Korea women have to go further to catch up with men with respect to the factors related in attachment to labor force than do women in the United States. The data is drawn from the Korean Labor & Income Panel Study and the Current Population Survey of the United States.

Korea is emerging as one of the economically advanced countries in Asia. Along with it, it is undergoing rapid demographic changes. As the fertility rate declines and as divorce rate sores, Korea potentially will have a larger proportion of children who will live in female-headed households. Thus, our study focused on the income status of children living in such households, on the degree to which social transfers improve these children's income status, as well as lessens income inequality among them. Based on OLS regression analyses, we estimated the effects of social transfers in reducing the disparity between income status of these children and that of children who live in male-headed and married-couple. We investigated conditions of U.S. children along the same issues, for comparative purposes. The major findings were that Korean children who live in female-headed households were more economically disadvantaged than the other two groups of children in Korea, that social transfers were less effective in improving the income status of these children than in improving the income status of U.S. counterpart children.

As demographic shifts make the Social Security program financially vulnerable, the responsibility for income security in old age will shift from the government to elderly people. In this changing environment, the accumulation of wealth will be a crucial issue because wealth holders can draw income from assets, which can supplement retirement income. Thus, wealth (or net worth) is a proximate indicator of economic well-being of the elderly. This article presents the findings of a study of the net worth of elderly people with disabilities. The major findings were that a smaller proportion of elderly people with disabilities has assets of any type compared with elderly people with no disability; the dollar value of each type of asset is smaller among elderly people with disabilities than among elderly people with no disability; and the net worth of people with disabilities is smaller than that of elderly people with no disability even after other variables were controlled.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the differential rates of accumulating net worth among low- and high-income households. To achieve this objective, the authors, using a sample drawn from the 1998 Survey of Consumer Finances, investigated the degree of elasticity of household net worth (or wealth) to household income among five income quintiles of households. The major finding was that among the lowest quintile, the elasticity was less than zero, meaning that as income increased, net worth declined. The elasticity increased as the quintile moved from the first to the fifth quintile. On the basis of the regression results, the authors concluded that income is a powerful determinant of the accumulation of net worth. The higher the income quintile, the greater the rate of accumulation of net worth. Implications for policy are discussed. KEY WORDS: elasticity; income class; low-income households; net worth ********** It is increasingly recognized that along with income, net worth (or wealth) is an important indicator of economic well-being. Observing the growing inequality in the distribution of net worth, Burtless (1999) warned that the growing net worth disparity in the United States may decrease the sense of social cohesion, creating a segmented society. Increasing inequality in net worth adversely affects the social and psychological conditions of U.S. households (Lynch et al., 1998). With these concerns as a backdrop, the major objective of our study was to compare the rate of accumulation of net worth among different income quintiles of households. To achieve this objective, we investigated the degree of elasticity of household net worth to household income among five income quintiles of households. The paragraphs that follow provide the background of the study and the rationale for identifying relevant variables that are treated as control variables in the study. BACKGROUND Economists say that there is no general theory of the accumulation of net worth (Diaz-Gimenez, Quadrini, & Rios-Rull, 1997). Thus, researchers in this field have dealt with certain hypotheses and concepts to guide their research. Broadly categorized, their concerns are the life-cycle hypothesis, structural variables--demographic and educational, individual psychological disposition regarding saving and investing, the necessity to consume, and others. These concepts are not mutually exclusive. The life-cycle hypothesis states that rational individuals accumulate net worth so that when they become old, they can ensure a continuous flow of income by dissaving what they accumulated while they were young (Land, 1996). In particular, it states that after a worker enters the labor force, his or her earnings and net worth rise and reach a maximum at a certain point and decline thereafter, at which time the accumulated net worth begins to be dissaved. This hypothesis implies that the size of net worth depends on which point in the life cycle a person has achieved (Tin, 1998). Aizcorbe and colleagues (2003) reported that the growth in net worth peaks between ages 55 and 64, and Wolff (1992) showed that the accumulation of net worth peaks at age 69 and then declines at age 70 and older. Because this hypothesis implies a nonlinear relationship between age and the accumulation of net worth, researchers normally include age and age-squared as part of regression models. Structural factors include employment status, education, and marital status, as well as age. Employment provides an opportunity to accumulate net worth through employer-provided pension plans and, therefore, a better chance of generating savings out of ongoing income. Governmental data have shown that the ratio of the net worth of working compared with nonworking people is about 3:1 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001a). Diaz-Gimenez and colleagues (1997) indicated that education has a positive effect on economic performance in terms of efficient consumption, saving, and investment. …

As the U.S. economy is thrust into the global economy and meets global economic competition, the country needs to mobilize people with disabilities to participate in the labor force and enable them to work and earn money optimally. Therefore, it is important to investigate the extent to which disability affects the employment rate and the levels of hourly wages and monthly earnings. This article presents the results of a study that investigated the net effect of disability on the work performance of adults. The specific areas of investigation were employment rate, monthly earnings, hourly wages, and hours of work per week. The major findings were that both statistically and substantively, the rate of employment and the level of monthly earnings of people with disabilities are significantly lower, controlling for other variables. Policy implications are discussed.

As the social security program comes under increasing financial pressure in the coming decades, the federal government will encourage elderly people to continue to work. Data from the Social Security Administration indicate that earnings are already a sizable component of retirement income. But there is public concern about how women and minorities will fare economically in this changing policy environment. To what extent can women and minorities keep earning money after they reach retirement age? This article presents the results of a study that investigated the postretirement earnings, relative to the preretirement earnings, of women and minorities, and compared the results with those for men and whites. The major finding, based on regression analyses, was that women's postretirement earnings, relative to their preretirement earnings, were greater than those of men. Furthermore, the regression results indicate that nonwhites' postretirement earnings could not be predicted by their preretirement earnings or by any of the independent variables used in the study, including age, gender, education, marital status, number of children, occupation, and preretirement earnings.

This article presents the results of a study that investigated the level of assets and debts that female-headed households have in comparison to those of married-couple households and other types of households. The empirical results revealed that the amounts of net worth of married-couple households and male-headed households were sig- nificantly larger than that of female-headed households. We discuss policy implications stemming from the findings of the study and recommend that the United States seriously consider creative policy approaches aimed at empower- ing low-income households such as employment-related supportive policies, microenterprise programs, and Individ- ual Development Accounts programs.

Among all the industrialized countries, Japan has the fastest rate of population aging and the highest life expectancy at birth. It is projected that the proportion of elderly people will reach 35.7&#37 in 2050. In this demographic environment, Japan launched a social insurance program for long-term care for the elderly in 2000. What were the forces that led Japan to establish a long-term care program for elderly people&#63 What are the provisions for financing, benefits, and service delivery&#63 What aspects of policymaking in developing such a program are unique to Japan&#63.

The federal policy on older workers has shifted from the encouragement of early withdrawal from the labor force to the encouragement of continuous participation in the labor force. In this light, it is instructive to investigate the backgrounds of elderly people who work at age 70 or older. This article presents the findings of a study, using data from the 1993 Asset and Health Dynamics of the Oldest Old Study, that investigated the effects of health, economic conditions (net worth, employer-provided pensions, and supplemental medical insurance coverage), education, and spouse's work status on the probability of working among men aged 70 or older. The study addressed the probability of working, the probability of working fulltime and of working part-time, and the probability of being self-employed and of being employed by others. Implications for policy are discussed.

Although the economic and social conditions of families have changed considerably, the framework of U.S. social policy with regard to families has not changed. Under the framework, policymakers assume that the poverty of families or individuals is largely their own fault. This long-standing belief has impeded the expansion of public spending on behalf of families. I compare public policy on family benefits in the United States and Sweden. The analysis indicates that the United States spends only a fraction of what Sweden spends on family benefits. I also describe the allocation of funds to specific family benefits programs in the two countries and discuss the policy directions that the United States may take in the future. Key Words: child, family policy, poverty, single parents, social welfare expenditures. (Family Relations, 2004, 53, 301-309) The United States, along with Australia, Japan, and the United Kingdom, has maintained the legacy of a small welfare state (Kamerman & Kahn, 1997). This U.S. legacy is associated with the notion of small government, personal responsibility, and faith in the marketplace to solve social and economic problems and impedes the expansion of publicly funded social welfare programs beyond the expansion of income-tested antipoverty programs (Danziger, Danziger, & Sterm, 1997). The industrial structure, families, and the role of women in the labor market have changed considerably. In the face of such changes, the U.S. Congress introduced several programs targeting families, such as the child tax credit, the dependent care tax credit, the tax credit for college expenses, and unpaid family leave. Yet, the United States has not developed a coherent family policy, nor is it spending enough to improve the economic conditions of American families (Cornia, 1997). Thus, it seems important to discuss the U.S. family policy (or the lack of one) in comparison to Sweden, the leader in the development of the welfare state. Sweden is an appropriate country for comparison because its public social welfare expenditures for family benefits are the highest among the 30 countries associated with the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and because it is one of the few countries known to have an explicit, comprehensive family policy. Here I first discuss the nature of Sweden's family policy and that of the United States. Second, I review the literature on the adverse impact of small-scale public spending for social welfare programs for American families and their children. Third, I present the results of an empirical study that quantifies the scope of social welfare expenditures on family benefits in the United States and Sweden and describe the pattern of allocation of public spending on each program that provides family benefits in each country. Last, I discuss policy implications. Family Policy in Sweden and the United States The Swedish and U.S. policies on families differ both philosophically and programmatically. Winkler (2001) and Danziger and associates (1997) argued that U.S. social policy was developed on the assumption that the poor economic conditions of female-headed families are due to their own failings and that female-headed families are a deviant family form. Implicitly, if all women with children are married and live in a two-parent family, the economic problems surrounding female-headed families would disappear. Because of the public's refusal to see structural causes of economic problems, the social policy interventions, if any, are designed only to take care of families on the fringes. U.S. social policy has not been concerned with broader issues other than antipoverty strategies (Danziger et al., 1997). For example, the policy on families gives no consideration to the imperfection of systems (e.g., the U.S. economic system) that do not provide adequate wages and benefits to low-wage earners, and the terms of their employment do not accommodate the conflict between worker and parent roles. …

This article introduces the concept of children's allowances as a strategy for the redistribution of income to children and reports the findings of an empirical study on the distributive effects of a children's allowance program and an improved earned income tax credit (EITC), separately and in combination. The source of data for the study was the 1999 Current Population Survey. The study found that these programs would greatly increase the income statuses and reduce the poverty rates of all children in this country, but especially of EITC-recipient children and children in large families, among whom black and Hispanic children are overrepresented. Implications for policy are discussed. Key words: children of color; children's allowances; earned income tax credit; economic well-being; large families ********** The United States is at a crossroad with its social policy on income support for children. The demographics are changing rapidly in two dimensions. First, the U.S. population is aging, with the proportion of children shrinking; second, the proportion of children from racial and ethnic minority backgrounds is increasing, with considerable differences in birth rates and net immigration rates between the white and racial and ethnic minority populations (Day, 1996; Ozawa, 1997). If the United States is to develop effectively into a multiracial and multicultural society with a viable growing economy, public policy should focus on children from racial and ethnic minority groups, who are concentrated among large low-income families. How political leaders deal with the interplay between the wage structure in a free economy and the needs of families determined by family size will determine whether the United States can maintain its vitality as a nation. Policymakers in many countries addressed this problem long ago (Beveridge, 1942; Douglas, 1927; Vadakin, 1958). They realized that employers in capitalistic societies cannot and are not obligated to provide differential wages according to the number of dependents in a family. On the other hand, a society cannot survive unless it finds the means to meet the financial needs of families with different numbers of dependents. These policymakers found the solution in children's allowances (Beveridge; Douglas; Vadakin). Through the enactment of the Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (P. L. 107-16), the federal government signaled its commitment to channel financial resources to families with children, using a tax credit approach. Section 2 of the law established a child credit of $600 per child, which will gradually increase to $1,000 in 2010, and made the tax credit refundable. Close scrutiny of this law indicates, however, that children whose parents have no earnings do not receive tax credits. Furthermore, for children of taxpayers who have earnings but not enough to pay income taxes, the law places a cap on the amount of refundable tax credits. For example, a family with two children that earned $15,000 in 2001, and hence would pay no income tax, would receive a total child tax credit of $500, not $1,200, because the law provides that the tax credit in this case must be the lesser of $1,200 or 10 percent of the difference between $15,000 (the family's earnings) and $10,000 (a statutory provision). It is important to note that the equation ($15,000-$10,000) x 0.1 applies to taxpayers with $15,000 in earnings, no matter how many children they have. Taxpayers with income tax liabilities that are smaller than the full child tax credit can claim the tax credit in the amount equal to the income tax amount, but the balance (the refundable component) is subject to the same cap as described here. In contrast, taxpayers with large income tax liabilities can claim a $600 tax credit for each child and can claim the tax credit for all the children. If, for example, a taxpayer with such a liability has eight children, he or she receives $4,800 in the form of a tax credit in 2001, as long as the adjusted gross income does not exceed the stipulated amount. …

Because their income status after retirement depends heavily on their prior experiences, retired people with disabilities face economic hardship compared with those without disability. While they are young, they tend to have less education and lower paying jobs and are less likely to marry. Thus, the question arises: Does disability status per se make them economically disadvantaged? This article presents the results of a study that investigated the net effect of disability status on the income status of retired people at the time of retirement and 10 years later, controlling for demographic variables, education, occupation, and degree of labor force attachment. The major finding was that when other variables were controlled, there was no difference in the income status of disabled and nondisabled persons at these two points in time.

It is widely believed that people who earned more while they were young tend to be healthier in old age. Our study, the findings of which are presented in this article, questioned whether this generalization applies equally to black and white elderly people. A multivariate analysis, which included gender, marital status, age, education, and number of children raised as control variables, indicated that the level of earnings during people's working lives is not related to the health impairments of black people at the time of retirement or 10 years later, but strongly related to the health impairments of white people.

SUMMARY The attainment of economic parity between men and women has been a focal point of the women's movements in many countries. How much worse off are women economically? What are the net, gender differences in economic well-being when other factors are taken into account? What factors explain the level of economic well-being of women compared to men's? This article reports the results of a study of the gender differences in the economic well-being of women and men in the United States from 1969 to 1999. The major findings are that the gender differential in economic well-being widened during these decades; women's economic well-being was more adversely affected by non-married status than men's; the increasing educational attainment of women offset the adverse effect of marital dissolution on them; and women continued to pay a higher price for caring for children than did men. Implications for policy are discussed.

Supplemental Security Income (SSI) is under close scrutiny because of the increase in the number of adults with disabilities on SSI and the low rate of their return to employment. So far, the focus of investigations by federal agencies and academics has been on the individual characteristics of these SSI recipients and the inner workings of the program. As a result, the interventions now in effect and those under consideration tend to focus on individual circumstances. This article presents the results of an empirical study, based on county-by-county data, indicating that an external factor—the unemployment rate in the county—is a strong correlate of the rate of SSI participation by adults with disabilities. On the basis of these findings, the author recommends using different types of programs, ranging from vocational rehabilitation to wage subsidies to moving expenses, and other goods and services to bring back into the labor force as many adults with disabilities as possible.

summary. Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus (HCV) subtype 1b involving 11 haemodialysis patients occurred in a haemodialysis unit in Japan in March 2000. Sequencing of the HCV-E1 region (411-bp) and phylogenetic-tree analysis showed near identity between HCV isolates derived from these patients and a haemodialysis patient who was known to be HCV-positive. The mode of transmission could not be conclusively established, but retrospective analysis suggested that the sharing of contaminated multidose vials of heparin-saline solutions, which were prepared in the Haemodialysis Center using accidentally contaminated instruments such as needles, may have been responsible for the outbreak. To prevent transmission of HCV in a haemodialysis unit, it may be important to observe strictly standard precautions and to prepare all medications in the Pharmacy. After these measures were taken, no new seroconversions and no new nosocomial transmissions of HCV have been observed in our haemodialysis unit.

Although Americans have a high propensity to divorce, many of them remarry soon afterward. However, little is known about the degree of financial benefit that remarriage provides. This article presents the findings from a study on the financial benefit of remarriage. In particular, the study estimated the differential economic impact of remarriage on men versus women and on high-income persons versus low-income persons. The major findings were that women benefit more from remarriage than do men and that high-income persons benefit more from remarriage than do low-income persons. For men and women, the variables children and education exerted similar effects on the change in their income status due to remarriage, but for high-income and low-income persons, the independent variables had considerably different effects. Implications for policies are discussed.

1. Linezolid (ZYVOX), the first of a new class of antibiotics, the oxazolidinones, is approved for treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections. 2. The aim was to determine the absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of linezolid in mouse, rat and dog in support of preclinical safety studies and clinical development. 3. Conventional replicate study designs were employed in animal experiments, and biofluids were assayed by HPLC or HPLC-MS. 4. Linezolid was rapidly absorbed after p.o. dosing with an p.o. bioavailability of > 95% in rat and dog, and > 70% in mouse. Twenty-eight-day i.v./p.o. toxicokinetic studies in rat (20-200mg kg(-1) day(-1)) and dog (10-80 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) revealed neither a meaningful increase in clearance nor accumulation upon multiple dosing. 5. Linezolid had limited protein binding (

As the public debates Social Security reform, the provision of spousal benefits will become an important issue. Under the Social Security program, the spouse with lower lifetime earnings is guaranteed at least 50 percent of the benefit of the spouse with higher lifetime earnings. Given the increasing financial problems of the Social Security program, spousal benefits will be scrutinized as a cost-cutting measure. Who benefits from the provision of spousal benefits, and how much? Is there a difference between the spousal benefits that lower-income and higher-income married couples receive? This article presents findings from an empirical study that investigated these questions and discusses their policy implications.

In the wake of public debate about reforming social security, Democratic Party leaders, union leaders, and black leaders defend the current social security program because it is designed to provide disproportionately large monthly benefits to low-wage earners relative to their lifetime average monthly earnings. Despite the progressive benefit formula used by the program, an important question remains: Do black workers receive disproportionately larger benefits during their lifetimes in relation to their lifetime contributions, as well as disproportionately larger monthly benefits? This article presents findings from a study that shows that when the lifetime perspective is taken, black workers receive less money's worth in social security benefits than white workers. Implications for policies are discussed. Key words: benefits; black workers; contributions social security; white workers The United States is facing a dual agenda regarding social security. On the one hand, maintaining the program's financial solvency beyond year 2037 requires some form of structural reform as the Board of Trustees (2000) of the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) Trust Funds warned. On the other hand, policymakers who are concerned about black and other minority group workers need to assess how the current system is working for them. If the system is working well for them, it should be maintained with minimal alterations. If it is not, it needs to be reformed more radically. Such a critical assessment of money's worth in social security benefits is needed because it is generally believed that the current program serves people of color well. In particular, liberal politicians and leaders of black communities tend to defend the current system on the basis of the benefit formula, which is slanted in favor of low-wage earners. Because black workers' earnings tend to be lower than those of white workers, this view is correct--but only partially. The missing variable is the shorter average life expectancy of black workers than white workers. If black workers receive social security benefits for fewer years than white workers, the apparent progressiveness in the benefit formula may be offset to a considerable degree. Indeed, an assessment of the social security benefits that black people are expected to receive during their lifetimes and of the relationship between their lifetime contributions and lifetime benefits is an important prerequisite to making an informed judgment about whether the social security system should be reformed and, if so, in what way. This article addresses the central question: Do black workers, who tend to earn lower wages than white workers, receive disproportionately larger benefits than white workers on the basis of lifetime benefits, as well as on the basis of monthly benefits? This question is critical because the life expectancy of black workers is shorter than that of white workers. Thus, the aim of our study, the findings of which are presented in this article, was to evaluate the degree of money's worth that black and white workers receive for their lifetime contributions. In particular, the study investigated the mean ratio of the present value of lifetime benefits to the present value of lifetime contributions of black and white workers. It also compared the mean ratio of monthly benefits to the average indexed monthly earnings of black and white workers. METHOD OF CALCULATING SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS All social security benefits are based on the primary insurance amount (PIA), which is derived in two steps. First, the worker's average indexed monthly earnings (AIME) are calculated by indexing the taxable earnings for each year from 1951 onward to the average wage level in the second year before age 62, disability, or death; summing indexed earnings (and unindexed earnings in the years after age 60); and dividing the sum by the number of months elapsed after 1950 (or age 21, if later) through age 61 (or the year before the year of disability or death). …

Laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) has been used to examine behaviors of the CF2 radicals and O atoms in oxygen/fluorocarbon plasmas by utilizing a magnetic neutral loop discharge (NLD), which is characterized by the efficient plasma production around the neutral loop, 'NL region'. It was found that, in a pure CF4 plasma, the radial profile of CF2 density near the NL region changes from convex to concave with increasing rf power. This implies that the NL region is a source for CF2 at low rf powers and changes into a net sink at high rf powers, probably due to the excess dissociation of CF2. In contrast, the O atom density in a pure O2 plasma was found to be very high and increases steadily against the rf power, corresponding to the dissociation degree of more than 20%. These features, emphasized by the high dissociation efficiency of the NLD, demonstrate different behaviors of both species related with the production and loss mechanisms. In plasmas of O2/CF4 mixtures, it was found that the variation of O density as a function of gas composition is mostly linear, depending on the dilution factor, while that of CF2 is nonlinear. This fact straightforwardly indicates that CF2 is mainly lost through reaction with O2 and that O is generated by the dissociation of residual O2. The change in the CF2 radial profile by O2 addition suggested that CF2 and O2 react in gas-phase and that the NL region fundamentally acts as a source for CF2. The results for O2/C4F8 plasmas were also presented and understood with the same description as in O2/CF4 plasmas taking into account the compositional balance of C/O2 and the slow surface-loss process.

1. Bropirimine (2-amino-5-bromo-6-phenyl-4-pyrimidinone) is a member of a class of antineoplastic agents that are administered concomitantly or sequentially with anticancer 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) prodrugs in clinical patients. Interactions between bropirimine and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) were investigated on dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) activity, the rate-limiting enzyme of 5-FU metabolism, in human liver cytosol. Apparent DPD activity was determined by measuring the recovery of [14C]5-FU by HPLC. 2. The apparent activity of 5-FU metabolism (2.1-100 microM) showed a linear relationship in the Eadie-Hofstee plot in the pooled cytosol, suggesting that a single enzyme is responsible for apparent 5-FU metabolism. Km and Vmax were estimated to be 23 microM and 0.32 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) protein, respectively. Apparent DPD activity for 5-FU (25 microM) in the cytosol from 12 individual donors ranged from 0.017 to 0.39 (0.16 +/- 0.12) nmol min(-1) mg(-1) protein, indicating a large intersubject variance. 3. The suicidal inactivators of the DPD enzyme, (E)-5-(2-bromovinyl)uracil and 5-bromouracil (6.3-50 microM), illustrated concentration-dependent inhibition on DPD activity. Isocytosine (6.3-100 microM), used as a negative control, did not affect DPD activity. Bropirimine (6.3-100 microM) also did not show any inhibition of DPD activity. Therefore, bropirimine is unlikely to cause increases in 5-FU levels in clinical patients after co-administration of bropirimine with 5-FU prodrugs.

As the proportion of the population of children decreases and the United States is increasingly exposed to global economic competition, children's economic well-being will become a major public policy issue. This study investigated the changes in income inequality among children from 1969 to 1979, 1979 to 1989, and 1969 to 1989 and compared them with the changes among adults and elderly people during the same periods. The major findings were that (1) income inequality among children increased at a faster rate than among adult and elderly groups, whether it was measured at the pretransfer stage or the posttransfer stage, and (2) the increased income inequality among children was due, in part, to the declining effectiveness of public income transfers-especially social insurance benefits-in lessening income inequality among children.

The economic well-being of elderly people is determined partly by how many assets they have. This article presents the findings of a study on the differences in the level of net worth held by white elderly people and black elderly people and the correlates of net worth of these two groups. The study found an enormous difference in net worth of these groups, even after other variables were held constant. Regression results indicated that whereas both lifetime earnings and human capital variables are significant predictors of the net worth of white men, these variables have little or no bearing on the net worth of black men. Separate analyses of data for white women and black women found that human capital variables are significant predictors of the net worth of white women, but variable lifetime earnings is the significant predictor of the net worth for black women. Key words: economic security; net worth; old age; race With the 21st century rapidly approaching, the public stance on the economic well-being of elderly people is changing. The philosophy behind the Social Security Act of 1935 was to help the nation share the risk of losing earnings because of old age and to pool the resources to ensure income security in old age for everyone. But the financial viability of social security began to be questioned in the 1970s, and since then, the idea of the privatization of social security has gained currency. Indeed, the centerpiece of one of the three reform proposals--the Personal Security Accounts (PSA) plan--made by the Advisory Council on Social Security, 1994-1996 (1997) is the privatization of a large part of social security. The spread of individual retirement accounts (IRAs), 401(k) plans, and Keogh accounts compounded the development of individual responsibility to ensure individuals' income security in old age. The combination of the growing financial difficulty in funding social security benefits on a pay-as-you-go basis for an increasing number of elderly people and the spread of IRAs is forcing many countries to adopt the full or partial privatization of social security. Australia and some Latin American countries already have some forms of IRAs instead of traditional social security systems. Sweden allows individuals to shift part of their payroll taxes into private accounts (Feldstein, 1997). As the traditional form of social security is minimized, the economic well-being of elderly people will depend increasingly on what they have in the form of private pensions and private wealth. Indeed, even now, income stratification among the elderly population is determined not by the amount of social security benefits, but by the amount of income from assets and from private pensions or annuities. Government data indicate that the highest fifth of aged individuals (individuals or couples) draw 24.4 percent of their total income from asset income, compared with only 2.7 percent for the lowest fifth. Likewise, the top fifth received 10.5 percent of their total income from private pensions or annuities, compared with 1.7 percent received by the bottom fifth (Glad, 1996). The present study focused on the net worth of white and black elderly people. Financial assets, such as stocks and bonds, can generate income (Ozawa, 1997). The ownership of a home provides in-kind income, in the form of rent-free housing. Furthermore, the holding of a large net worth, whether liquid or not, generates an intangible sense of economic well-being. Thus, the investigation of net worth of white elderly people versus black elderly people provides vital information to assess these two groups' economic security in old age. The specific questions the study addressed were these: * What is the level of net worth held by white and black people 10 years after retirement? * Controlling for other variables, what are the racial differences in net worth held 10 years after retirement? …

This study examined racial and ethnic differences in use of health services by white, African American, and Hispanic elderly. people. Using a national representative sample of elderly from the AHEAD study, we estimated a two-part model of health services utilization. We found that African American and Hispanic elderly were more likely to make physician visits than white elderly. Among those who made physician visits, Hispanic elderly made more visits than white elderly. We also found that the effects of factors affecting use of health services varied by race and ethnicity. These results lead us to reject the homogeneity assumption made by many health services researchers.

This article presents a comparative study of the income status of children in female-headed families, married-couple families, and male-headed families in 1969, 1979, and 1989. The study found that from 1969 to 1989, children in female-headed families gained ground economically to children in marriedcouple families at the point of pretransfer income distribution, but it lost at the point of posttransfer income distribution. In comparison to children in maleheaded families, these children gained ground economically at both points of income distribution, but to a lesser degree at the point of posttransfer income distribution. The findings point to the conclusion that female heads of families increased economic capabilities during the past two decades—a manifestation of their greater work efforts. Policy implications are discussed.

For the first time since its inception in 1974, SSI for disabled children is under close public scrutiny. Is SSI being implemented for mentally disabled children, as intended under the law? If it is, the state rate of participation in SSI for reasons of mental illness and mental retardation should reflect the prevalence of such mental disorders among children in the states as well as the degree of child poverty. This article, first, discusses SSI policies and their development and, then, presents the findings of a study that tested this assumption by investigating the relationship between the rates of participation on account of mental illness and mental retardation and the prevalence of these mental disorders. The study found that SSI is being implemented for children with mental retardation, as intended under the law, but not for children with mental illnesses. The implications of the findings for policy are discussed.

As the aging of the population accelerates in the coming decades, the use of formal services by elderly persons will become an important issue. This article presents the findings of a study on the pattern of utilization of out-of-home services and in-home services among a cohort of social security beneficiaries in the 10 years after their retirement. The study found that the determinants of the use of these two types of services are distinctly different. For example, the variable health impairments is related to the use of in-home services but not out-of-home services; on the other hand, education is related to the use of out-of-home services but not in-home services. The implications of these findings for social work practice are discussed.

The enactment of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 and the Taxpayers Relief Act of 1997 signals the U.S. commitment to developing human capital among children. However, any such initiative must be pursued within the context of the rapidly changing demographics and the current economic standing of each racial/ethnic group of children, as well as the entire population of children. This paper presents the projections of future changes in the racial/ ethnic composition of children and the results of a study on the quintile distribution of children in the U.S. population, ranked by income statuses. The findings indicate that over three-quarters of Hispanic children and nearly three-quarters of black children are in the bottom two quintiles. Given the rapidly changing demographics and the lower economic standing of minority children, the public policy intervention of investing in children needs to be targeted to minority children.

Over the past three decades, the economic status of elderly Americans has vastly improved, but little is known about how satisfied elderly persons are with their economic lives. Using a national representative sample of retired workers from the New Beneficiary Followup Survey, this article presents the results of a Study on the effects of economic conditions and health status on economic satisfaction among American workers, 11 years after they started receiving social security benefits and/or Medicare coverage. The study found that both economic conditions and health status are significant determinants of economic satisfaction among these persons. More important, it found that good health contributes more to these persons' economic satisfaction than do good economic conditions.