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Over a century of research on pollinator cognition has shown that pollinators such as bees perceive and learn a multitude of floral stimuli and are capable of sophisticated decision-making using a variety of cognitive abilities. Research on pollinator cognition usually focuses on a single reward aspect in isolation, which does not reflect the complexity of reward types, chemistries, and attributes many pollinators encounter while foraging. Reward complexity can impact pollinators' perception, learning, and decision-making in interesting and sometimes unexpected ways. A cognitive perspective can shed new insight into the functions of floral reward complexity and bridge the fields of animal behavior and plant ecology. The cognitive ecology of pollination is most often studied using simple rewards, yet flowers often contain multiple types of chemically complex rewards, each varying along multiple dimensions of quality. In this review we highlight ways in which reward complexity can impact pollinator cognition, demonstrating the need to consider ecologically realistic rewards to fully understand plant–pollinator interactions. We show that pollinators' reward preferences can be modulated by reward chemistry and the collection of multiple reward types. We also discuss how reward complexity can mediate pollinator learning through a variety of mechanisms, both with and without reward preference being altered. Finally, we show how an understanding of decision-making strategies is necessary to predict how pollinators' evaluation of reward options depends on the other options available. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The globally changing climatic condition is increasing the incidences of drought in several parts of the world. This is predicted and already shown to not only impact plant growth and flower development, but also plant–pollinator interactions and the pollination success of entomophilous plants. However, there is a large gap in our understanding of how drought affects the different flowers and pollen transfer among flowers in sexually polymorphic species.Here, we evaluated in monoecious Styrian oil pumpkin, and separately for female and male flowers, the responses of drought stress on flower production, petal size, nectar, floral scent and visitation by bumblebee pollinators.Drought stress adversely affected all floral traits studied, except floral scent. Although both flower sexes were adversely affected by drought stress, the effects were more severe on female flowers, with most of the female flowers even aborted before opening. The drought had negative effects on floral visitation by the pollinators, which generally preferred female flowers.Overall, our study highlights that the two flower sexes of a monoecious plant species are differently affected by drought stress and calls for further investigations to better understand the cues used by the pollinators to discriminate against male flowers and against flowers of drought‐stressed plants. See also the Commentary on this article by Buchmann & Papaj, 244: 746–748. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Gradual pollen presentation is a reproductive strategy for plants to improve the efficiency and accuracy of pollen export and acceptance as well as to promote outcrossing. Vaccinium corymbosum Berkeley has a typical mechanism of gradual pollen presentation. Methods: In this study, we used indoor and outdoor observations to investigate the floral characteristics, pollination characteristics and breeding system of this species in open ground and greenhouse. Results: The results showed that the single white, inverted bell-shaped flower of V. corymbosum was able to effectively avoid the negative effects of rainfall, nectar dilution and pollen removal by wind, and improved pollen viability and the duration of stigma receptivity. The setting rate of 'Northland' is higher than open ground by artificial pollination in greenhouse, therefore, greenhouses are more suitable for 'Northland' reproduction. The gradual pollen presentation prolongs dispersal time, promotes pollinator participation in the pollination process, increases staminate fitness, and provides for nectar feeding by pollinators as well as pollen export. Bombus spp. and A. m. ligustica were effective pollinators in the open ground and greenhouse, and the pollination efficiency of Bombus spp. was higher than that of A. m. ligustica, and greenhouse pollination is more efficient than open ground. The coincidence of the peak period of pollinator visits with the period of highest pollen viability and optimal pollination of stigmas, as well as the high nectar production, could maximize the frequency of pollinator visits and increase the chances of successful pollination as well as the pollination efficiency. Discussion: Therefore, it is important to study the floral characteristics of V. corymbosum Berkeley and the mechanism of gradual pollen presentation in order to improve the pollination efficiency and promote the success of outcrossing, which can provide a theoretical basis for the breeding of V. corymbosum. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Volatile compounds in floral nectar may affect plant–pollinator relationships; however, the understanding of the distribution and functions of scented floral nectar is still relatively limited. In this study, we examined the volatile constituents of the scented floral nectar of the black lily Fritillaria camtschatcensis and their potential to attract flower‐visiting flies. In Japan, F. camtschatcensis comprises two varieties, var. camtschatcensis (lowland) and var. keisukei (alpine). The flowers of both varieties secrete large amounts of nectar that is fed on by visiting flies. We investigated the sugar concentration of the nectar using high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and studied its volatile chemical composition using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. We conducted a bioassay using a synthetic mixture of nectar volatiles of the lowland variety to test whether flies are attracted to volatile compounds in the nectar scent. HPLC analysis showed that glucose and fructose occur in the nectar of the alpine variety, whereas the lowland variety nectar contained glucose but lacked fructose. Nectar volatile compounds differed substantially between the two varieties; the volatiles of the lowland variety consisted primarily of four aliphatic acids, whereas acetophenone was the main volatile compound in the alpine variety. The bioassay showed that a mixture of three aliphatic acids detected as volatiles of the lowland variety nectar attracts flies, including those that visit the alpine variety flowers such as Calliphoridae. These results suggest that the volatiles of the scented nectar serve as attractants for flower visitors and may have an important role in the pollination of F. camtschatcensis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competition for nectar is expected to result in feeding niche differentiation. Here, we targeted the sexually size-dimorphic Volcano Sunbird (Cinnyris preussi) on Mount Cameroon. We investigated whether males and females feed on different plant species, whether females with shorter bills than males prefer shorter flowers, and whether larger dominant males visit more energetic flowers that produce higher amounts of nectar sugars. We also asked whether feeding niches were spatially separated along the elevation gradient and whether this separation varied between the two contrasting seasons. We collected data on the frequency of visits to individual plant species and analyzed the male-to-female ratios in the mist-netted dataset. In addition, we estimated production of nectar sugar in individual habitats and seasons. Despite the large dataset collected, encompassing 6476 bird–plant interactions, our findings did not provide evidence of differences in the spectra of the visited plant species. In addition, females did not visit flowers with shorter tubes, nor did males visit flowers that produced higher amounts of sugars. However, we observed a sex-specific dispersion of sunbirds during the wet season. During the dry breeding season, both males and females feed mainly in nectar-rich montane and submontane forests. In the wet season, the production of nectar sugar in these habitats decreased dramatically, and females largely disappeared. In contrast, female activity increased in the lowest and highest parts of the altitudinal range. Our findings on elevational movements are important in the current context, in which species face potential threats from habitat destruction and climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Female solitary bees collect pollen for their brood at the expense of using sugars in the nectar as fuel for flight. When flowers provide both pollen and nectar, solitary bees can refuel from the flowers to sustain pollen foraging. However, not all flowers provide both pollen and nectar. This study investigates how females of the solitary bee Andrena taraxaci orienticola secure fuel to sustain pollen foraging when flowers provide scarce nectar. By using DNA barcoding, we identified the Japanese dandelion Taraxacum platycarpum as their primary food source. This dandelion produces almost no nectar in the early morning when female bees collect almost no nectar but collect substantial amounts of pollen. We also found that these bees leave the nest with significantly more nectar at the first flight of the day than at later flights. When we restricted their fuel load by preventing nectar feeding, significantly more females failed to collect pollen on the first flight of the following day. These results suggest females hold back some part of the nectar collected at the end of a day's foraging and use it the following morning as fuel to sustain pollen foraging from flowers providing little nectar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The pollination characteristics and flowering phenology of Calanthe sieboldii were evaluated to elucidate its reproductive characteristics and breeding systems. Field observations and artificial pollination experiments were conducted to study the pollination biology in Xuancheng City, Anhui Province. Meanwhile, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was employed to analyze the species' volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Key findings include the following: (1) the flowering period extends from mid-April to mid-May, with a population-level flowering duration of 29 days in 2017, individual plant flowering averaging 20.22 days, and single flower longevity ranging from 12 to 23 days (mean = 19.30 days); (2) the species exhibits deceptive nectar guides devoid of nectar, indicating food-deceptive pollination, with Bombus sp. identified as its primary pollinator; (3) the pollinial–ovule ratio and hybridization index suggest a high level of self-compatibility without autonomous self-pollination, with no significant difference in pollination success between self- and outcross populations; (4) GC-MS analysis identified methyl benzoate and acacia-related compounds as the primary VOCs of C. sieboldii. These findings provide valuable insights into the conservation and sustainable management of orchids, particularly C. sieboldii. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of the present study was to study butterfly-Tridax procumbens interaction and test whether there is any correlation between lengths of corolla tube of the flowers and butterfly proboscis. Most butterflies visit flowers to obtain nectar. A common weed T. procumbens is an invasive species and a nectar plant for many butterflies. At Shivaji University campus, we documented a total of 42 species of butterflies belonging to three families (Lycaenidae, Nymphalidae, and Pieridae) of superfamily Papilionoidea visiting flowers of T. procumbens for nectar from December 2022 to November 2023. Among these, lycaenids were the most speciose with a total of 21 species, followed by the family Nymphalidae with 12 species, and the family Pieridae with nine species. Although the corolla length of T. procumbens flower is considered short, butterflies with both short (Lycaenidae and Pieridae) and long (Nymphalidae) proboscises were observed visiting these flowers for nectar. Seasonal studies carried out here showed that the highest number of butterfly species was recorded during monsoon season, mainly in June, than during other seasons. Among all species recorded, Eurema laeta was recorded at the highest temperature 35.8°C with 37% humidity. In the present communication photographs of all 42 butterfly species visiting T. procumbens flowers are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Species traits greatly influence interactions between plants and pollinators where floral nectar is the primary energy source fostering this mutualism. However, very little is known about how nectar traits mediate interactions in pollination networks compared with morphological traits. Here, we evaluated the role of morphological and nectar traits in shaping plant–hummingbird interaction networks along an elevation gradient. For this, we assessed patterns in floral phenotypic traits and network properties of plant species across elevations in Costa Rica. We also analysed whether plant species with generalized flower traits are ecological generalists and how morphological trait matching versus nectar traits affect interactions. We found marked variation in floral phenotypic traits and flower abundance of hummingbird-visited plant species across 10 sites along the elevation gradient. We did not find evidence for a relationship between flower morphology and nectar traits or between morphological and ecological generalization of plant species. Plant–hummingbird interaction frequency increased when the lengths of hummingbird bill and flower corolla were similar, indicating morphological matching, whereas nectar traits were unrelated to interactions. While nectar may play a difficult-to-detect secondary role within plant–hummingbird networks, our results reinforce the idea that morphological matching is an important factor in structuring ecological communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While most models of decision-making assume that individuals assign options absolute values, animals often assess options comparatively, violating principles of economic rationality. Such 'irrational' preferences are especially common when two rewards vary along multiple dimensions of quality and a third, 'decoy' option is available. Bumblebees are models of decision-making, yet whether they are subject to decoy effects is unknown. We addressed this question using bumblebees (Bombus impatiens) choosing between flowers that varied in their nectar concentration and reward rate. We first gave bees a choice between two flower types, one higher in concentration and the other higher in reward rate. Bees were then given a choice between these flowers and either a 'concentration' or 'rate' decoy, designed to be asymmetrically dominated on each axis. The rate decoy increased bees' preference in the expected direction, while the concentration decoy did not. In a second experiment, we manipulated choices along two single reward dimensions to test whether this discrepancy was explained by differences in how concentration versus reward rate were evaluated. We found that low-concentration decoys increased bees' preference for the medium option as predicted, whereas low-rate decoys had no effect. Our results suggest that both low- and high-value flowers can influence pollinator preferences in ways previously unconsidered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Exposure to pesticides is one potential factor contributing to the recent loss of pollinators and pollinator diversity. Few studies have specifically focused on the relationship between pesticide management during ornamental plant production and contamination of nectar. We evaluated contamination of nectar in Salvia ‘Indigo Spires’ (Salvia longispicata M. Martens & Galeotti × S. farinacea Benth.) associated with applications of the systemic insecticide thiamethoxam, and the nonsystemic fungicides boscalid and pyraclostrobin. Applications were made at the labeled rates for the commercially available products, and we compared the influence of application method (drench vs. spray), timing (relative to flowering), and rate (low vs. high) for each pesticide. Nectar was sampled using 50‐µL microcapillary tubes and analyzed by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. The results indicate that concentrations from the spray application resulted in the least contamination of nectar with the systemic thiamethoxam, with lower concentrations occurring when thiamethoxam was applied before blooming at the lowest rate. Concentrations of thiamethoxam and its metabolite clothianidin were detected in nectar in all treatments (regardless of the method, timing, or rate of application), and ranged from 3.6 ± 0.5 ng/mL (spray‐applied before blooming, low rate) to 1720.0 ± 80.9 ng/mL (drench‐applied after blooming, high rate). Residues of clothianidin in nectar ranged from below quantification limits (spray‐applied before blooming, low rate) to 81.2 ± 4.6 ng/mL (drench‐applied after blooming, high rate). Drench applications resulted in the highest levels of nectar contamination with thiamethoxam, and exceeded published median lethal concentrations (LC50s/median lethal doses for native bees and/or honeybees in all cases). Spray treatments resulted in nectar concentrations exceeding published LC50s for some bee species. In comparison, all nonsystemic treatments resulted in concentrations much lower than the published no‐observable‐effect doses and sublethal toxicity values, indicating low risks of toxicity. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;001:1–12. © 2024 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollination success of alpine plants is often restricted by low and unpredictable pollinator activity because of harsh and unstable weather conditions, where nocturnal pollination is rare. The alpine orchid, Platanthera tipuloides (Orchidaceae), has inconspicuous greenish yellow flowers with a sweet scent and a long spur that contains nectar. These floral traits are expected to be related to nocturnal moth pollination. To elucidate the pollination mode and reproductive characteristics of this species, we measured floral traits (spur length, nectar content in the spur, floral scent), documented flower visitors using camera traps, and quantified self‐compatibility and the degree of pollen limitation through controlled pollinations at two study plots in the Taisetsu Mountains, northern Japan. It was revealed that P. tipuloides is self‐incompatible and pollen limitation was absent at one of the study plots. The flowers emitted more volatile substances during the night, including lilac aldehyde isomers, which are known to attract moths. A nocturnal moth, Entephria amplicosta, was observed foraging nectar from the flowers, while no diurnal visitors were observed. The proboscis of E. amplicosta was shorter than the spur length, but it was long enough to access the accumulated nectar in the spurs. These results suggest that nocturnal pollination by moths is possible and can be efficient even in an alpine ecosystem with harsh environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding what drives the evolution of nectar‐robbing strategies is key for gaining insight into the functioning of pollination networks. However, nectar robbing is often an anecdotal behaviour, difficult to quantify and record through field observations, especially in hummingbirds, limiting our understanding of how ecological networks change across communities. Here, we report new records of nectar robbing by Peru's endemic Black Metaltail (Metallura phoebe) in a high‐elevation forest at ca. 4000 m a.s.l. and how this species uses either legitimate pollination feeding or nectar robbing in relation to corolla lengths. Furthermore, by analysing 452 citizen science records of photographic observations, we found that 36% of the photographs depicting a foraging event in this species were actually nectar‐robbing events. After identifying the plant species in all photographs involving foraging events, we describe how nectar robbing conducted by this hummingbird species is strongly associated with flowers that have longer corollas. We propose that the hummingbird‐flower interactions in harsh high‐altitude environments, where resources and competition vary markedly across seasons, can offer insight into the ecological drivers of nectar‐robbing behaviour in hummingbirds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reproductive isolation is one of the mechanisms of speciation. The two currently accepted subspecies of Parodia haselbergii (P. haselbergii subsp. haselbergii and P. haselbergii subsp. graessneri) were studied regarding flower traits, phenology, breeding systems and pollination. In addition, a principal component analysis with 18 floral characters and germination tests under controlled conditions were performed for both taxa. Pollination was studied in the field, in two localities of Southern Brazil. Pollinators were recorded through photos and film. Breeding system experiments were performed by applying controlled pollinations to plants excluded from pollinators. Both taxa mostly differ in asynchronous flowering periods, floral traits (including floral part measurements and nectar concentration) and pollinators. The flowers of both subspecies are functionally protogynous and perform remarkably long lifespans (≥ 15 days), both traits being novelties for Cactaceae. Whereas the reddish flowers of P. haselbergii subsp. haselbergii (nectar concentration: ca. 18%) are pollinated by hummingbirds of Thalurania glaucopis, the greenish flowers of P. haselbergii subsp. graessneri (nectar concentration: ca. 29%) are pollinated by Augochlora bees (Halictidae). Both subspecies are self-compatible, yet pollinator-dependent. The principal component analysis evidenced that both subspecies are separated, regarding flower traits. The seeds of both subspecies performed differently in the germination tests, but the best results were recovered at 20 °C and germination considerably decreased around 30 °C. In conclusion, all these results support that both taxa are in reproductive isolation, and can be treated as different species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competition among pollinators for floral resources is a phenomenon of both basic and applied importance. While competition is difficult to measure directly under field conditions, it can be inferred indirectly through the measurement of floral resource depletion. In this study, we conducted a pollinator exclusion experiment to calculate nectar depletion rates in summer across 16 grassland sites in the German regions of Franconia and Saxony‐Anhalt. Overall depletion rates were estimated at 95% in Franconia and 79% in Saxony‐Anhalt, indicating strong nectar limitation and likely competition among pollinators for nectar. Despite being ubiquitous in our study regions, honey bees were scarce at our sites at the time of nectar sampling. This demonstrates that wild pollinators alone are capable of massive nectar depletion, and the addition of managed honey bees to wild pollinator communities may intensify already competitive conditions. Nevertheless, the manifest diversity of the pollinator communities at our sites indicates that other factors, such as non‐trophic constraints or temporal variation in nectar limitation, can mitigate competitive exclusion despite immediate conditions of acute nectar scarcity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: A few Capsicum (pepper) species produce yellow‐colored floral nectar, but the chemical identity and biological function of the yellow pigment are unknown.A combination of analytical biochemistry techniques was used to identify the pigment that gives Capsicum baccatum and Capsicum pubescens nectars their yellow color. Microbial growth assays, visual modeling, and honey bee preference tests for artificial nectars containing riboflavin were used to assess potential biological roles for the nectar pigment.High concentrations of riboflavin (vitamin B2) give the nectars their intense yellow color. Nectars containing riboflavin generate reactive oxygen species when exposed to light and reduce microbial growth. Visual modeling also indicates that the yellow color is highly conspicuous to bees within the context of the flower. Lastly, field experiments demonstrate that honey bees prefer artificial nectars containing riboflavin.Some Capsicum nectars contain a yellow‐colored vitamin that appears to play roles in (1) limiting microbial growth, (2) the visual attraction of bees, and (3) as a reward to nectar‐feeding flower visitors (potential pollinators), which is especially interesting since riboflavin is an essential nutrient for brood rearing in insects. These results cumulatively suggest that the riboflavin found in some Capsicum nectars has several functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cover LegendCapsicum pubescens: open purple flower with yellow nectar droplets and unopened bud against a black background. Image courtesy of Evin Magner (Magner et al., pp. 1991‐2007).. [Extracted from the article]

Nectar-foraging bees change their use of floral resources as plant species appear in the environment and disappear over their lifetimes. The new flowers used may involve different cues and different nectar extraction tactics. Although bumble bees can adapt to changes in floral cues and required tactics, little is known about whether bees prioritize switching tactics or floral cues when deciding which plant species to switch to. In a laboratory assay, we forced common eastern bumble bee, Bombus impatiens , workers either to switch the handling tactic they were using or to continue using the tactic but to switch the colour of artificial flowers foraged on. We examined whether bees' tendency to change their tactics was influenced by how similar in colour novel flowers were to familiar ones. We conducted a 2 × 2 factorial experiment using artificial flowers, manipulating the handling tactic that bees were initially trained to use (legitimate visit or nectar robbing) and the similarity between novel and trained colours (similar or distinct). We found that under most conditions bees preferred to switch flower colours and retain handling tactics. However, when given experience with legitimate visits and when novel flowers were markedly different in colour from those they had experienced previously, bees tended to switch tactics while continuing to forage on flowers of the same colour. These findings suggest that the similarity in colour of a new floral resource to the currently exploited resource and the flower-handling tactic used by bees both play an important role in decision making by foraging bumble bees. • We examined bumble bees' switching decisions to novel types of flowers. • Bees were trained to legitimately visit or rob blue flowers to obtain reward. • Novel (dark blue or yellow) flower rewards required the trained tactic. • Bees switched to dark blue flowers using the trained tactic. • Bees switched to robbing blue flowers when the novel flower was yellow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and aims - Fluorescence is the emission of light by a fluorophore that has absorbed light of shorter wavelengths. While the role of fluorescence in visual communication has been documented in some animals (budgerigars, gelatinous Zooplankton), it is controversially discussed in plants. Floral nectar fluorescence has been mainly found in flowers pollinated by bees. It has been suggested as direct visual cue by which bees can evaluate the available quantity of nectar, thus being important for pollination and foraging efficiency. However, this function has been questioned, since fluorescence is said to be obscured by floral reflections due to low quantum efficiency. The aim of this study was to examine the nectar of plants pollinated by non-flying mammals, namely Eucomis regia, Massonia grandiflora, M. echinata, and M. pustulata (Asparagaceae) from South Africa. Material and methods - To detect possible fluorescence in flowers, the plants were illuminated in a darkened room under UV light and photographed with a camera equipped with a UV/IR cut filter (transmitting at 400-700 nm). Key results - Within the inflorescences, the nectar of all species showed blue to bluish fluorescence and UV absorption. Separated nectar also fluoresced. Conclusion - As fluorescence in flowers occurs not only in bee-pollinated plants but also in plants pollinated by wind, and by nocturnal or crepuscular pollinators (non-flying mammals, bats, moths) for which floral scent is an important attractant, floral fluorescence seems to have no adaptive value for the attraction of flower visitors. We discuss the potential role of fluorescence in flowers as just a by-product of compounds that might have other functions such as visual attraction by reflection (or UV absorbance), protection of genetic material in pollen from UV induced damage, or as a floral filter causing nectar to be bitter, repelling ineffective pollinators but not effective ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sunflower production depends on pollination by honey bees, Apis mellifera L., and wild bees. For wild sunflower oligoleges, preference for various sunflower lines seems to reflect the quantity (or accessibility) of floral rewards, with floret size (≈accessibility of sunflower nectar) appearing most important. However, it is less clear how honey bees, a key generalist, are affected by sunflower floral traits. The honey bee-sunflower interaction was explored to test if accessibility of nectar (≈floret size) and related floral traits explain foraging preferences and to assess potential nutritional variation in sunflower pollen. In the first two years, honey bee foraging preference increased with decreasing floret length similar to previous observations with wild pollinators. In the second year, no similar response was seen, though nectar rewards (by volume or volume × concentration) were remarkably low compared to the previous year. Pollen collected from bagged plants in the second year showed sunflower lines differed in concentrations (µg/mg ± SE) of total fatty acids and essential fatty acids. In general, it appears that honey bee responses to floral traits are similar to those of wild bees responsible for pollinating much of the sunflower crop in the central United States and that variation in the nutritional quality of sunflower pollen is greater than previously known. Because of the broad geographic distribution of the sunflower crop, additional research on how the environment influences floral rewards and sunflower-pollinator interactions may be needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Primary nectar-robbers feed through holes they make in flowers, often bypassing the plant's reproductive organs in the process. In many robbed plants, multiple holes are made in a single flower. Why a flower should be robbed repeatedly is difficult to understand: a hole signals that a nectar forager has already fed, which would seem likely to predict low rewards. We tested three explanations for this pattern in Corydalis caseana (Fumariaceae), a bumble bee pollinated and robbed plant: (1) multiple holes appear only after all flowers have been robbed once; (2) individual foragers make multiple holes during single visits; and (3) it is more profitable for bees to rob older flowers, even if they have already been robbed. We tested these hypotheses from 2014 to 2016 in a Colorado, USA population using data on robbing rates over time, floral longevity, nectar accumulation in visited and unvisited flowers, and the accumulation of robbing holes across the life of flowers. Multiple holes were already appearing when two-thirds of flowers still lacked a single hole, allowing us to reject the first hypothesis. The second hypothesis cannot offer a full explanation for multiple robbing holes because 35% of additional holes appeared in flowers one or more days after the first hole was made. Repeated sampling of bagged and exposed inflorescences revealed that flowers filled at a constant rate and refilled completely after being drained. Consequently, young flowers are of consistently low value to foragers compared to older flowers even if they had previously been robbed, consistent with the third hypothesis. While further studies are needed, these results offer a simple explanation for the paradoxical clustering of nectar-robbing damage in this and possibly other plant species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of visit of pollinator insect(Chalicodoma cincta) on the production of Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Rose variety), were studied at Sarh in September 2021 and 2022. The experiments were made on four treatments. The activity behavior of Chalicodoma cincta on the flower were appreciated to determinate is impact on the yield. Results indicate that among seven insect species recorded on flowers, C. cincta ranked first (31.41%) and harvested nectar. Throughout the importance of the flower visit, this insect provoked a significant increase of the podding rate (30.45 %), the mean number of seeds per pod (22.42 %) and the percentage of normal seeds (32.81%). The conservation and installation of C. cincta nests close the plantation fields is recommended to improve pod production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In bee diets, nectar is the primary source of carbohydrates. During scarcity of bee flora, such as in winter, beekeepers typically provide supplemental sugar syrup as a nectar substitute. We examined four types of sugars (sucrose, fructose, glucose, and a mixture of fructose and glucose) on bee longevity, bee appetitive, and their impact on pollen digestion. The results showed that sucrose and glucose had extended the longevity in cages. Bees preferred sucrose at a 50% concentration since they consumed more than the other sugar types in cages and in the multiple-choice test experiment in apiary. Bees given sucrose solution consumed the most pollen. In contrast, the cages provided the fructose solution consumed the least amount of pollen, increasing body fat percentage, which can be considered evidence of a digestive disorder. Generally, the type of sugar affects bee's benefits from nutrition. Finally, sucrose is the best type of sugar and is considered the ideal substitute for nectar. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Faced with pollinator declines, cities could serve as refuges for biodiversity conservation by managing floral resources in public green spaces. Ornamental plants could play an important role in attracting pollinators because they form part of urban floral management. However, knowledge of how their floral traits respond to drought is lacking, and it is unknown whether they will be suitable for pollinators under future climates. The main objective of this study was to determine the covariation of floral traits of ornamental plant species and effects of drought on them. To this end, in a city greenhouse we measured floral traits of eight ornamental species commonly used in urban green spaces in France. We subjected the plants to a control treatment or a drought treatment, reducing the volume and frequency of watering. We observed interspecific variability in floral traits among these species and a change in covariation between the traits pollen quantity and nectar quantity in the drought treatment. Drought influenced morphological traits related to floral display more than other floral traits, with mean decreases of 28 % in floral height, 35 % in floral area and 58 % in the number of floral units. Ornamental plants seemed attractive to different morphotypes of pollinators depending on their floral unit number, nectar sugar concentration or nectar tube depth, with most visits made by Hymenoptera. These results are expected to encourage green-space managers to select urban plants according to their functional characteristics and adapt their choice of plants to climate change.

Onion flowers require pollinator-mediated cross-pollination. However, the cues that pollinators use to locate the flowers are not well understood. The floral scent, along with floral visual cues, might acts as important signal to pollinators in order to locate the floral resources. We used electrophysiological methods combined with behavioural assays to determine which compounds in a floral scent are more attractive and thus biologically important to foraging scollid wasps. The majority of the molecules identified as floral fragrances in onions are common compounds that are already known from other angiosperms, and onion floral scents were predominately composed of aromatic components. The antennae of scoliid wasps responded to a large number of compounds, among them o-cymene, cis-β-ocimene, benzaldehyde and allo-ocimene were behaviourally active. In contrast to other wasp flowers investigated nectar analysis demonstrated the dominance of hexose sugars over sucrose. Our findings provide fresh insights into the floral volatile chemistry of a key vegetable crop grown around the world. We demonstrate here that onion is using generalist floral volatiles to attract floral visitors. This insight could be utilised to make onion blooms more attractive to minor pollinators as well as major pollinators in order to maximise seed set. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attracting pollinators to achieve successful reproduction is a key challenge for wild plants that may be disturbed by complex multispecies interactions in nature. Pairwise plant–pollinator interactions have traditionally been studied for decades, while ignoring other ecological players may obscure a comprehensive understanding on how plants recruit partners or combat enemies in the pollination process. Hence, integrated studies considering the inherent complexity of ecological interactions are needed, which may open up new perspectives for deciphering intricate systems and predicting ecological consequences.We examined the presence of nectar yeasts using a combination of high‐throughput sequencing, cultivation and microscopy and quantified floral herbivory by evaluating the incidence of flowers with visible holes in 13 natural populations of Iris bulleyana in the Hengduan Mountains of southwest China during 2017–2022. We combined yeast inoculation and herbivore manipulation treatments to illustrate the isolated and combined impacts of two contrasting nectarivorous organisms, the ascomycetous yeast Metschnikowia reukaufii and adult sawflies, on pollinator visitation and plant reproductive success in two populations. In the lab, we first employed gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to profile the volatile metabolites of yeast‐inoculated nectar relative to control, followed by a behavioural bioassay to test the preference of honeybees for these microbial volatiles.Yeasts commonly inhabited floral nectar and insect herbivores frequently bit holes in the perianth tube to consume nectar and nectaries. Nectar yeasts indirectly facilitated plant reproduction through increased pollinator visits, probably because of microbial metabolism as honeybees preferred nectar volatiles produced by yeasts in behavioural bioassays. Insect herbivores increased total floral visits but reduced legitimate visits by inducing legitimate‐to‐robbing behavioural changes of honeybees, thus leading to lower seed production. The detrimental effect of herbivory was mitigated by the presence of yeasts, which diminished the relative proportion of robbing visits and thereby 'rescued' flowers from reproductive failure.Synthesis: Overall, we found contrasting effects of non‐pollinator species, including both micro‐ and macro‐organisms, on plant–pollinator interactions in a biodiversity hotspot, where pollination deficit may be a ubiquitous phenomenon. Our findings suggest that both microbial and herbivory effects are likely to be important in explaining the exact causes of pollen limitation in species‐rich areas, highlighting the biological context dependence of species interactions in natural ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Novel insecticides are continuously being developed for application in response to increased legal restriction of previously developed insecticides and resistance in target insects. These novel insecticides, such as flupyradifurone (FPF), remain relatively untested on non‐target organisms, including bumblebees. Further, existing tests on honeybees tend to focus on adult mortality and thus sub‐lethal effects, such as impacts on reproductive output, are neglected, despite their importance for population‐level impacts.To address if the novel insecticide FPF has sub‐lethal effects on bumblebee reproduction and behaviour, we established microcolonies and chronically exposed them to field‐realistic concentrations over a 14‐day period.We found that exposure to FPF reduced the bumblebees' reproductive output in terms of the number of larvae produced and the mean mass of each larval instar. FPF‐treated bees also stored less sucrose and constructed fewer honeypots. However, adult bumblebee mortality was similar between control and FPF‐exposed microcolonies.Our results show that field‐realistic FPF exposure leads to increased larval mortality and/or delayed larval development, as well as reduced nectar storage, without affecting adult mortality.Policy implications. Insecticides that impair bumblebee reproduction can have long‐term population‐level consequences, even if adult bees do not experience increased mortality. Despite this fact, sub‐lethal effects, such as impacts on reproduction, are not mandatorily assessed within the regulatory process. Our findings highlight the importance of determining sub‐lethal effects of pesticides across developmental stages, as well as using pollinator species other than honeybees within the regulatory process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nectar, an important reward in plant-pollinator interactions, mainly provides sugars, but also other nutrients. Nectar sugar content is known to affect pollinator preferences, while the effect of other nectar nutrients on flower visitor choices is less well understood. To explore whether nectar nutrients affect the foraging preferences of the stingless bee Trigona fulviventris, we conducted feeding choice experiments with sucrose solution enriched with either an amino acid mixture (in high and low concentrations), sodium chloride (table salt), a fatty acid mixture, or quinine (a bitter tasting substance used as negative control) against pure sucrose solution in a lowland rainforest in Costa Rica. Bees were first trained to feeders presenting either a yellow (only sucrose solution) or a blue (sucrose solution plus tested substance) visual cue that the bees could use to associate with the solution content. They were subsequently offered a choice between the blue and yellow feeders in an unrewarded test. The bees preferred pure sucrose solutions over sucrose solutions with quinine, amino acids, or fatty acids, but not over solutions with salt. Our findings indicate that T. fulviventris is able to differentiate various nutrients in nectar and prefers pure sucrose solution or sucrose solutions with salt. Sugar and salt may therefore represent important nutrients in nectar and are likely key cues to assess nectar quality in tropical stingless bees. In contrast, other nutrients appear to compromise the bees' taste for nectar and are likely obtained from other sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floral nectar is mainly a reward in the form of food for pollinators. In early spring, when snow can still be present, pollinators have trouble finding food. The composition and productivity of nectar in flowers play an important role in a pollinator's life. It is known that low temperatures and lower humidity cause lower nectar secretion. Some studies have also shown that the quality of nectar can differ because of lower temperatures. In our research, we analysed whether abiotic factors affect nectar secretion, as well as the nectar composition of the early spring plant species Galanthus nivalis L. and Helleborus niger L. in February 2024. The study was conducted in two locations in nature. Nectar from H. niger was sampled in Tomišelj, Slovenia, whereas nectar from G. nivalis was sampled in Ljubljana, Slovenia. On four different days at three different times of day, we sampled nectar from flowers using microcapillaries. In total, we sampled 48 nectar samples from one species. We analysed soil humidity and temperature, air temperature and humidity, and UVB radiation. Our results show that nectar productivity is highest in the morning for both species. H. niger has sucrose-dominant nectar, while G. nivalis has hexose-dominant nectar. Proline, which is an important amino acid for bees, has the highest level in both species, as does the phenolic compound rutin. Environmental factors do affect nectar secretion. Soil and air temperature affect G. nivalis nectar secretion, while soil humidity affects H. niger nectar secretion. Soil and air temperature also have an effect on higher levels of sugars in both researched nectars. UVB, air humidity, and air and soil temperature seem to have an effect on phenolic compounds, but abiotic factors do not affect amino acids. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shifts between pollinator functional groups can explain major changes in floral phenotype. I document a novel case of butterfly pollination in Platycoryne, an African genus that is phylogenetically embedded in the very large Habenaria clade in the Orchidaceae. Most Habenaria species have green or white flowers and many of these have been shown to be pollinated by moths, but my observations of the orange-flowered species Platycorynus mediocris in south-central Africa showed that it is pollinated diurnally by butterflies. The nectar-producing spurs of this species are c. 15 mm in length and closely match the tongue lengths of nymphalid and pierid butterflies that visit the flowers. The rostellum arms flank the spur entrance and place sickle-shaped pollinaria on the eyes or palps of the butterflies. In contrast to the highly scented flowers of moth-pollinated Habenaria species, the flowers of P. mediocris emit very little scent. Anecdotal observations indicate that several other Platycoryne species with orange flowers are also pollinated by butterflies. I conclude that the flower colouration (orange without UV reflectance) and low emission of scent in P. mediocris reflect an important historical shift to butterfly pollination in African members of the Habenaria clade. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Faced with pollinator declines, cities could serve as refuges for biodiversity conservation by managing floral resources in public green spaces. Ornamental plants could play an important role in attracting pollinators because they form part of urban floral management. However, knowledge of how their floral traits respond to drought is lacking, and it is unknown whether they will be suitable for pollinators under future climates. The main objective of this study was to determine the covariation of floral traits of ornamental plant species and effects of drought on them. To this end, in a city greenhouse we measured floral traits of eight ornamental species commonly used in urban green spaces in France. We subjected the plants to a control treatment or a drought treatment, reducing the volume and frequency of watering. We observed interspecific variability in floral traits among these species and a change in covariation between the traits pollen quantity and nectar quantity in the drought treatment. Drought influenced morphological traits related to floral display more than other floral traits, with mean decreases of 28 % in floral height, 35 % in floral area and 58 % in the number of floral units. Ornamental plants seemed attractive to different morphotypes of pollinators depending on their floral unit number, nectar sugar concentration or nectar tube depth, with most visits made by Hymenoptera. These results are expected to encourage green-space managers to select urban plants according to their functional characteristics and adapt their choice of plants to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the complex interactions between external and internal factors that influence pollinator foraging behaviour is essential to understand ecosystem functioning, design agricultural practices or develop effective conservation strategies. However, it remains challenging to collect large and reliable data sets with reasonable personnel and workload.In this study, we present a wireless and cost‐effective robotic flower equipped with internet of things (IoT) technology that automatically offers nectar to visiting insects while monitoring visitation time and duration. The robotic flower is easy to manipulate and settings such as nectar refill rates can be remotely altered, making it ideal for field settings. The system transmits data completely wirelessly and autonomously, is mobile and easy to clean.The prototype settings allow for approximately 2 weeks of uninterrupted data collection for each battery charge. As a proof‐of‐concept application, a foraging preference dual choice experiment with bumblebees was performed. On average, more than 7000 flower visits per colony were registered daily with a set‐up consisting of 16 robotic flowers. The data show a gradual preference shift away from the pre‐trained low concentration, confirming the hypothesis of favouring sugar water with higher concentration.The robotic flower provides accurate and reliable data on insect behaviour, significantly reducing the price and/or labour costs. Although primarily designed for (bumble)bees, the system could be easily adapted for other flower‐visiting insects. The robotic flower is user‐friendly and can be easily adapted to address a wide range of research questions in pollination ecology, conservation biology, biocontrol and ecotoxicology, and allows for detailed studies on how nectar traits, flower colour and shape or pollutants affect foraging behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coccinellids (Coccinellidae, commonly referred to as ladybeetles, ladybugs, or ladybirds) are predatory insects that often contribute to the biological control of crop pests. Especially when prey is limited, ladybirds have been reported to consume plant resources such as nectar. However, the importance of nectar consumption to ladybird fitness is not well understood. We performed artificial feeder experiments confirming ladybird consumption of a sugar solution with carbohydrate ratios similar to nectar. Both Harmonia axyridis (harlequin ladybird) and Hippodamia convergens (convergent ladybird) depleted sugar solution in 100% of trials. We also tested the effects of aphid and sugar solution availability on longevity and fecundity of these species. Ladybirds generally died within 10 days if no food was provided but survived for 10 days when either aphids or sugar solution were available. Aphids were required for oviposition. However, when aphids were available, oviposition was 36–90% higher when sugar solution was available as well. We conclude that nectar availability has significant potential to increase ladybird fitness, so may be worth considering in the design of conservation biological control programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sensory analysis methodologies are performed in sensory booths designed to minimise external stimuli, lacking ecological validity. Immersive environments are used to introduce contextual cues, but there is a lack of studies using mixed reality systems. The main goal of this study was to evaluate an augmented virtuality (AV) system where participants are inserted into a virtual environment and evaluate a real product, being able to interact with both dimensions. A panel of 102 consumers evaluated five samples of commercial peach nectars in three sessions, each in a different environment: public food court, living room (AV environments), and laboratory (traditional sensory booth). Consumers rated overall liking, followed by open comments, and also answered an Engagement (EQ) and a Presence Questionnaire (PQ). The type of environment only affected hedonic discrimination among samples, with the laboratory setting being the only one with sample discrimination. Nonetheless, each sample was not evaluated differently across the different environments. Concerning engagement, the environment only significantly influenced the EQ's 'Affective Value' factor, being higher when using an AV system. The level of presence in the virtual environment was significantly higher in the public food court, being significantly correlated with the EQ factor scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examining the pollination biology of plant species is not only crucial for enhancing our understanding of their reproductive biology, but also essential for elucidating their adaptation and evolutionary history. Here, we investigated the breeding system and pollination biology of two closely related species in Actaea. The flower of A. purpurea is unique in the genus with purple and chartaceous (paper-like) sepals, fewer stamens with yellow anthers and purple filaments. Through three seasons of field observation and exclusion experiments, we determined that A. purpurea was primarily pollinated by a hornet species, Vespa bicolor , which also served as the most efficient pollinator. In contrast, A. japonica was primarily pollinated by large flies. Actaea purpurea exhibited a significantly higher cumulative nectar volume than A. japonica , which could be a crucial factor in attracting V. bicolor. A control experiment further demonstrated that removing the nectar leaf (petal) significantly decreased the visiting frequency of V. bicolor. Breeding system studies revealed that both species were self-compatible, yet they primarily underwent outcrossing in natural habitats. Our study presents a compelling case of possible pollinator shift in A. purpurea accompanied by morphological divergence. A more in-depth investigation of this system would offer crucial insights into the extent to which pollinators are involved in the plant speciation process and whether they contribute to reproductive isolation between closely related species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Elongated nectar‐feeding mouthparts have evolved in several fly families, most notably Nemestrinidae, Bombylidae and Tabanidae. Plants pollinated by these “long‐proboscid flies” tend to have relatively specialized pollination systems. In this review, I focus on the blood‐ and nectar‐feeding horsefly genus Philoliche (Tabanidae: Pangoniinae) which includes species that are important pollinators of plants in Africa and, to a lesser extent, in Asia. The nectar‐feeding mouthparts of flower‐visiting Philoliche species range from 5 to 65 mm in length, with considerable intraspecific variation evident in some taxa. Plants pollinated by Philoliche species tend to have corolla tubes (or highly exerted reproductive structures) that match the proboscis dimensions of their pollinators. Some Philoliche species and their nectar host plants show population‐level covariation in proboscis lengths and flower depths that is indicative of co‐adaptation. I summarize existing information on the distribution and morphology of Philoliche species known to pollinate flowers as well as the identity, morphology and nectar properties of plants pollinated by these insects. This survey identifies some Philoliche species as keystone pollinators. Distinct guilds of plants are adapted to different horsefly species in different geographical regions and are generally ecologically reliant on these insects, although some plant species share tabanid and nemestrinid pollinators that are functionally similar on account of convergent evolution of their proboscis dimensions. Lack of information about the larval biology, nectar host plants, fire ecology and dispersal distances of Philoliche species is the biggest challenge for the conservation of these specialized pollinators and the plants that depend on them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Plants can evolve rapidly after pollinator changes, but the response of different floral traits to novel selection can vary. Floral morphology is often expected to show high integration to maintain pollination accuracy, while nectar traits can be more environmentally sensitive. The relative role of genetic correlations and phenotypic plasticity (PP) in floral evolution remains unclear, particularly for nectar traits, and can be studied in the context of recent pollinator changes.Digitalis purpurea shows rapid recent evolution of corolla morphology but not nectar traits following a range expansion with hummingbirds added as pollinators. We use this species to compare PP, heritability, evolvability and integration of floral morphology and nectar in a common garden.Morphological traits showed higher heritability than nectar traits, and the proximal section of the corolla, which regulates access to nectar and underwent rapid change in introduced populations, presented lower integration than the rest of the floral phenotype. Nectar was more plastic than morphology, driven by highly plastic sugar concentration. Nectar production rate showed high potential to respond to selection.These results explain the differential rapid evolution of floral traits previously observed in this species and show how intrafloral modularity determines variable evolutionary potential in morphological and nectar traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many plants have evolved nutrient rewards to attract pollinators to flowers, but most research has focused on the sugar content of floral nectar resources. Concentrations of sodium in floral nectar (a micronutrient in low concentrations in nectar) can vary substantially both among and within co‐occurring species. It is hypothesized that sodium concentrations in floral nectar might play an important and underappreciated role in plant–pollinator interactions, especially because many animals, including pollinators, are sodium limited in nature. Yet, the consequences of variation in sodium concentrations in floral nectar remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigate whether enriching floral nectar with sodium influences the composition, diversity, and frequency of plant–pollinator interactions. We experimentally enriched sodium concentrations in four plant species in a subalpine meadow in Colorado, USA. We found that flowers with sodium‐enriched nectar received more visits from a greater diversity of pollinators throughout the season. Different pollinator species foraged more frequently on flowers enriched with sodium and showed evidence of other changes to foraging behavior, including greater dietary evenness. These findings are consistent with the "salty nectar hypothesis," providing evidence for the importance of sodium limitation in pollinators and suggesting that even small nectar constituents can shape plant–pollinator interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A common management intervention to support declining wild pollinators is 'pollinator planting'. However, despite years of inclusion in conservation initiatives, global pollinator declines continue.Using the agent‐based model BEE‐STEWARD with two example species, Bombus terrestris (L. 1758) and B. pascuorum (Scopoli, 1763) (Hymenoptera: Apidae), we explore when during the year bumblebee resource demand is the highest and how that relates to seasonal changes in colony composition (numbers of eggs, larvae, pupae and adults). We then examine the impact of two‐week periods of resource scarcity across the year. Finally, we explore how enhancement with early spring‐blooming herbaceous species or trees changes colony survival and queen production.In the United Kingdom, there is a previously under‐appreciated 'hungry gap' for bumblebees in March–April, before the peak flight period, driven by the demands of larvae for protein and thermoregulation in the colony, rather than the number of adult bees.A 2‐week gap in forage availability during this period drives a 50%–87% drop in the production of daughter queens. Adding early‐blooming species in the model had significant, positive, long‐term effects on colony survival probability and daughter queen production.Pollinator‐planting initiatives in both national and international conservation schemes need to include plants that flower up to 1 month before the adults of target social pollinator species are apparent in the field, during the period that larvae dominate the colony. This approach is likely to increase colony survival and queen production, contributing towards halting and reversing global pollinator decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We analyzed the floral morphology and nectar production of several cultivars and species of Monarda representing five cultivars and four species grown in Georgia Piedmont and Montane regions. Over the course of two seasons, we detected significant differences among the samples in terms of inflorescence size, petal lobe and corolla widths and lengths, and total sugar content. M. didyma had larger glomerules, longer corollas and petal lobes, and higher nectar volume and total sugar content per flower. M. fistulosa and M. punctata had smaller glomerules, corolla and petal lobe lengths, and total sugar content per flower. Petal lobe and corolla length strongly correlated with sucrose and nectar production. Combined with data on horticultural performance, these results could be valuable in informing breeding goals for conservation-oriented landscape plants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The intervention of nectar robbers in plant pollination systems will cause some pollinators to modify their foraging behavior to act as secondary robbers, consequently adopting a mixed foraging strategy. The influence of nectar robbing on pollinator behavior may be affected by spatio-temporal difference of robbing intensity, and consequently, may have different effects on the pollination of host plants. However, whether and how the nectar robbing might influence pollinators under different robbing intensity still needs further investigation. In this study, Symphytum officinale was used to detect the effect of nectar robbers on pollinators under different robbing intensity as well as their effects on plant reproductive success. Six robbing levels and three bumblebees with mixed foraging behaviors were used to evaluate the effect of different robbing intensity on pollinator behavior, visitation rate, flower longevity and pollen deposition. Our results indicated that the robbing rate increased gradually with the proportion of robbed flowers, but which did not affect the frequency of legitimate visits. The increase of robbing rate promoted the corolla abscission, and then enhanced the self-pollen deposition, but which had no significant effect on cross-pollen deposition. These results indicate that the overall fitness of S. officinale was improved by combined self and cross-pollination modes when visited by both pollinators and nectar robbers simultaneously. Although nectar robbing is not uncommon, its consequences for pollination in the interaction web have not been well studied. Our results emphasize the significance of indirect impacts in mediating the adaptive outcomes of species interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research aimed to evaluate the feasibility of applying green tea extract encapsulated in yellow mombin (Spondias mombin L.) nectar. Two formulations were developed: with microencapsulated green tea extract (NM) and control (NC). NM was the variant concentration of green tea microencapsulated (4.6 g of green tea microcapsules for each 240 mL of beverage). The samples were subjected to physical-chemical and bioactive compounds analysis, such as the study of rheological behavior and sensory analysis. The addition of microcapsules resulted in changes in all of the parameters evaluated, highlighting the contribution in antioxidant activity and total phenolic compounds. The inclusion of microcapsules did not influence the rheological behavior. For the sensory analysis, it was found that NC presented better sensory acceptance. The inclusion of microcapsules of green tea extract in yellow mombin nectar presents itself as a viable alternative for the development of a new product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article, titled "Gangs in the Bar: Hornets Enjoy Nectar and Hunting During Pollination," discusses a study conducted in the Nikko Botanical Garden in Japan. The study focuses on two species of Japanese Angelica plants that are predominantly visited by hornets, including the Asian giant hornet. The study found that the hornets were important pollinators for these plants but also observed that they hunted and killed other insects while enjoying the nectar. The article suggests that this behavior may contribute to the ecological specialization of hornet-pollinated Angelica species. [Extracted from the article]

Wild rose hip fruit, pulp, beverage, nectar, as well as technological methods and tools are taken as the object of research. Rose hips have a, bright red color and a rich chemical composition, which makes it a very important raw material for industry. However, insufficient research slows down this work and makes the use of raw materials inefficient. With this in mind, the aim was to study the mechanical and technological characteristics of the femur, which are considered important for industrial processing. The reflection of ripening conditions on the mechanical, physical and chemical properties of rose hips, as well as the influence of processing methods, especially hot processing, on the quality of the product has been established. Research has shown that the percentage of fruit cultivation in the Dashkasan region was the lowest, and the highest in the Gadabay region, and the Goygol region took an intermediate position. The Latin hardness of fruits grown in Dashkasan region was 6.41 N. Gadabay region with 5.56 N and Goygol region with 5.47 N. This indicator plays an important role in the storage and processing of fruits. As a result of the treatment, the amount of dry matter in fruit, pulp and beverage increased slightly, titratable acids, ascorbic acid and pH decreased. An increase in total phenolic compounds was observed during the initial heat treatment of the raw material and was noted to be much lower in the pulp and beverage. Hot treatment had a reducing effect on the amount of ascorbic acid, which is considered one of the main components of indicators in the thigh. The obtained results can be used in individual family farms and in the food industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Southern Asian flowers offer honeybees a diversity of nectar. Based on its geographical origin, honey quality varies. Traditional methods are less authentic than DNA-based identification. The origin of honey is determined by pollen, polyphenolic, and macro-microorganisms. In this study, amplicon sequencing targets macro-microorganisms in eDNA using the ITS1 region to explore honey's geographical location and authentication. The variety of honey samples was investigated using ITS1 with Illumina sequencing. For all four honey samples, raw sequence reads showed 979,380 raw ITS1 amplicon reads and 375 ASVs up to the phylum level. The highest total number of 202 ASVs up to phylum level identified Bali honey with 211,189 reads, followed by Banggi honey with 309,207 a total number of 111 ASVs, and Lombok represents only 63 ASVs up to phylum level with several read 458,984. Based on Shannon and Chao1, honey samples from Bali (B2) and (B3) exhibited higher diversity than honey from Lombok (B1) and green honey from Sabah (B4), while the Simpson index showed that Banggi honey (B4) had higher diversity. Honey samples had significant variance in mycobiome taxonomic composition and abundance. Zygosaccharomyces and Aspergillus were the main genera found in Lombok honey, with percentages of 68.81% and 29.76% respectively. Bali honey samples (B2 and B3) were identified as having a significant amount of the genus Aureobasidium, accounting for 40.81% and 25% of the readings, respectively. The microbiome composition of Banggi honey (B4) showed a high presence of Zygosaccharomyces 45.17% and Aureobasidium 35.24%. The ITS1 analysis effectively distinguishes between honey samples of different origins and its potential as a discriminatory tool for honey origin and authentication purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant‐pollinator interactions are constrained by floral traits and available pollinators, both of which can vary across environmental gradients, with consequences for the stability of the interaction. Here, we quantified how the pollination ecology of a high‐mountain hummingbird‐pollinated plant changes across a progressively more stressful environmental gradient of the Venezuelan Andes. We compared pollination ecology between two populations of this plant: Piedras Blancas (PB) and Gavidia (GV), 4450 and 3600 m asl, respectively. We hypothesised that self‐compatibility might be higher at the higher altitude site, however we found that flowers showed similar capacities for self‐compatibility in both localities. Seed production by flowers exposed to natural pollinators was significantly higher in the lower locality, where we also found higher nectar quality, larger flowers and increased frequencies of pollinator visitations. Interestingly, the population energy offered in the nectar was the same for both localities due to the higher density and floral aggregation found in the higher altitude population. Our study demonstrates how two plant populations in different environmental conditions have different pollination ecology strategies. Pollinator visitations or their absence result in trait associations in one population that are independent in the other. These population differences are not explained by differences in pollinator assembly, but by environmental heterogeneity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Concerns about competition between pollinators are predicated on the assumption of floral resource limitation. Floral resource limitation, however, is a complex phenomenon involving the interplay of resource production by plants, resource demand by pollinators, and exogenous factors—like weather conditions—that constrain both plants and pollinators. In this study, we examined nectar limitation during the mass flowering of rosaceous fruit trees in early spring. Our study was set in the same region as a previous study that found severe nectar limitation in summer grasslands. We used this seasonal contrast to evaluate two alternative hypotheses concerning the seasonal dynamics of floral resource limitation: either (H1) rates of resource production and consumption are matched through seasonal time to maintain a consistent degree of resource limitation, or (H2) a mismatch of high floral resource production and low pollinator activity in early spring creates a period of relaxed resource limitation that intensifies later in the year. We found generally much lower depletion in our spring study compared to the near 100% depletion found in the summer study, but depletion rates varied markedly through diel time and across sampling days, with afternoon depletion rates sometimes exceeding 80%. In some cases, there were also pronounced differences in depletion rates across simultaneously sampled floral species, indicating different degrees of nectar exploitation. These findings generally support the seasonal mismatch hypothesis (H2) but underscore the complex contingency of nectar depletion. The challenge of future work is to discern how the fluctuation of resource limitation across diel, inter‐diel, and seasonal time scales translates into population‐level outcomes for pollinators. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Floral nectar sugar composition is assumed to reflect the nutritional demands and foraging behaviour of pollinators, but the relative contributions of evolutionary and abiotic factors to nectar sugar composition remain largely unknown across the angiosperms. We compiled a comprehensive dataset on nectar sugar composition for 414 insect-pollinated plant species across central Europe, along with phylogeny, paleoclimate, flower morphology, and pollinator dietary demands, to disentangle their relative effects. We found that phylogeny was strongly related with nectar sucrose content, which increased with the phylogenetic age of plant families, but even more strongly with historic global surface temperature. Nectar sugar composition was also defined by floral morphology, though it was not related to our functional measure of pollinator dietary demands. However, specialist pollinators of current plant-pollinator networks predominantly visited plant species with sucrose-rich nectar. Our results suggest that both physiological mechanisms related to plant water balance and evolutionary effects related to paleoclimatic changes have shaped floral nectar sugar composition during the radiation and specialisation of plants and pollinators. As a consequence, the high velocity of current climate change may affect plant-pollinator interaction networks due to a conflicting combination of immediate physiological responses and phylogenetic conservatism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Plant pollen is rich in protein, sterols and lipids, providing crucial nutrition for many pollinators. However, we know very little about the quantity, quality and timing of pollen availability in real landscapes, limiting our ability to improve food supply for pollinators.We quantify the floral longevity and pollen production of a whole plant community for the first time, enabling us to calculate daily pollen availability. We combine these data with floral abundance and nectar measures from UK farmland to quantify pollen and nectar production at the landscape scale throughout the year.Pollen and nectar production were significantly correlated at the floral unit, and landscape level. The species providing the highest quantity of pollen on farmland were Salix spp. (38%), Filipendula ulmaria (14%), Rubus fruticosus (10%) and Taraxacum officinale (9%). Hedgerows were the most pollen‐rich habitats, but permanent pasture provided the majority of pollen at the landscape scale, because of its large area. Pollen and nectar were closely associated in their phenology, with both peaking in late April, before declining steeply in June and remaining low throughout the year.Our data provide a starting point for including pollen in floral resource assessments and ensuring the nutritional requirements of pollinators are met in farmland landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]