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Much information people receive about others reaches them via gossip. But is this gossip trustworthy? We examined this in a scenario study ( Nsenders = 350, Nobservations = 700) and an interactive laboratory experiment ( Nsenders = 126; Nobservations = 3024). In both studies, participants played a sequential prisoner’s dilemma where a gossip sender observed a target’s (first decider’s) decision and could gossip about this to a receiver (second decider). We manipulated the interdependence structure such that gossipers’ outcomes were equal to targets’ outcomes, equal to receivers’ outcomes, or independent. Compared to no interdependence, gossip was more often false when gossipers were interdependent with targets but not when interdependent with receivers. As such, false positive gossip (self-serving when interdependent with targets) increased but false negative gossip (self-serving when interdependent with receivers) did not. In conclusion, the interdependence structure affected gossip’s trustworthiness: When gossipers’ outcomes were interdependent with targets, gossip was less trustworthy.

This study analyzes the “glass cliff” phenomenon using performance data from 233 large listed firms in Germany and the United Kingdom collected from 2005 to 2015. We examine these firms' accounting and stock market performance trends prior to the appointments of new board members and the short-term stock market reaction to these appointments. To address endogeneity concerns that may have affected previous glass cliff field research, we apply various matching procedures, perform different panel data analyses and do instrumental variable analyses. We find no support for the idea of the glass cliff: Before the appointment of female executives, the performance trend in German or British companies is no more negative than in companies that select male managers.

The present study examined the joint impact of collectivistic value orientation and independent self-representation of group members upon group creativity. In a laboratory experiment involving three-person student teams ( N = 72), we induced a collectivistic (vs. an individualistic) value orientation and independent (vs. interdependent) self-representation via priming methods. Using a group-brainstorming paradigm, we found as expected that groups generated more original ideas when members combined a collectivistic value orientation with independent self-representation than with interdependent self-representation. By contrast, differences in self-representation did not have a significant effect when an individualistic value orientation was made salient. Furthermore, we found that this effect was mediated by the degree of idea fixation within the group, thereby illuminating the underlying cognitive mechanism of the observed synergy effect. Implications of the findings for research on group creativity and future directions are discussed.

Policy interventions intended to fight COVID-19 forced people to cope with several restrictions on their personal freedom. The present work addressed the question of how people dealt with stressors during a lockdown period and investigated the role of trait mindfulness and its subcomponents in coping and mental well-being. We recruited a sample of 93 participants to study coping reactions using a multi-wave study over a period of two-months with 13 measurement points. Multilevel analysis revealed that engagement-related coping such as problem-solving was positively related to well-being; the opposite was true for disengagement coping such as blaming. The mindfulness facet orientation towards experience (being open and accepting experiences without judgment) was negatively related to disengagement coping, while the facet self-regulated attention (awareness of the present moment) was positively related to engagement coping. Self-regulated attention but not orientation towards experience was associated with savoring positive aspects of COVID-related changes over time. Engagement-related coping mediated the effects of trait mindfulness on well-being. The findings point to the differential effects of subcomponents of trait mindfulness in the context of coping and mental well-being. Further implications are discussed.

Previous research found inconsistent associations between individuals’ emotion recognition ability and their work-related outcomes. This research project focuses on client satisfaction as a core work-related outcome. We argue that service settings differentially affect clients’ emotional goals, activating either socio-affective goals or goals targeting cognitive clarity. In service settings activating clients’ socio-affective goals, clients are expected to respond favorably if service providers combine emotion recognition with high empathic concern; in service settings activating clients’ cognitive clarity goals, clients are expected to respond more favorably if service providers combine emotion recognition with low empathic concern. Study 1 confirmed that service settings differentially affect clients’ emotional goals, with hairdressing settings activating socio-affective goals and psychotherapy settings triggering cognitive clarity goals. Accordingly, hairdressing clients were more satisfied if service providers combined emotion-recognition ability with high trait empathic concern (Study 2). Conversely, in the context of psychotherapy, clients were more satisfied if therapists’ combined emotion-recognition ability with low trait empathic concern (Study 3). Thus, service contexts moderate the effect of affective responses to clients’ emotional signals in a predictable manner.

Background Mindfulness is a state of nonjudgmental attentiveness to moment-to-moment experiences. Interest in implementing mindfulness-based interventions is growing. Objective We investigated the benefit of a short mindfulness exercise for mindfulness novices in a performance situation. Method Participants ( N = 97) engaged in a mindfulness or relaxation exercise and subsequently worked on an achievement test. Results Participants in the mindfulness condition had fewer distracting evaluative thoughts during and experienced less negative affect after the achievement test. Participants also exerted less self-control (vagal withdrawal measured via heart rate variability) during the mindfulness exercise than on the relaxation exercise. In a subsample ( n = 84), selected on the basis of serious involvement in the exercise, mindfulness eliminated the negative association between distracting evaluative thoughts and performance. Furthermore, beneficial effects of mindfulness on distractive thoughts were found for participants low but not high in trait mindfulness. The mindfulness exercise did not influence performance. Conclusion In performance contexts, even brief mindfulness exercises may have beneficial effects for mindfulness novices and people low in trait mindfulness.

Previous research established the notion that both trait and state variables are powerful predictors of individuals' unethical decision making. The present work investigates the role of individual differences in dispositional sensitivity to injustice and state mindfulness on cheating behavior in a group performance task. In a laboratory experiment with 395 participants, we first assessed dispositional justice sensitivity and experimentally induced mindfulness via a 10-minute meditation. We then analyzed cheating behavior in a performance task. The incentive structure of the experiment was designed to allow participants to cheat on their true performance to positively influence their group payment. The higher participants scored on perpetrator sensitivity (fear of behaving unfairly), the less likely they were to cheat; this was also true for participants with high levels of state mindfulness. In turn, participants who scored high on victim sensitivity (fear of being unfairly disadvantaged) were more likely to cheat. We discuss our findings in light of the literature on justice sensitivity and mindfulness and highlight implications for further research.

According to an information processing perspective, group creativity results from the combination of individual resources into a (creative) group product. This involves information processing at the individual as well as the group level (by means of communication). This chapter first discusses how individual-level information processing is affected by group interaction in terms of both cognitive interference and cognitive stimulation. It then discusses (1) the evidence linking group-level information processing (i.e., communication, information sharing, collaborative problem solving) to group creativity and (2) the factors that stimulate or reduce group-level information processing. It is argued that many research findings can be explained by assuming that group creativity involves motivated information processing of members.

Recent experimental studies seem to concur that gossip is good for groups by showing that gossip stems from prosocial motives to protect group members from non-cooperators. Thus, these studies emphasize the "bright" side of gossip. However, scattered studies point to detrimental outcomes of gossip for individuals and groups, arguing that a "dark" side of gossip exists. To understand the implications of gossip for cooperation in groups, both the dark and bright side of gossip must be illuminated. We investigated both sides of gossip in two scenario studies. In Study 1 (N = 108), we confronted participants with a free-rider in their group and manipulated whether the gossip recipient was the free-rider's potential victim or not. Participants showed a higher group protection motivation in response to gossip when imagining gossiping to a potential victim of a norm violator compared to a non-victim. They showed a higher emotion venting motivation when imagining gossiping to a non-victim compared to a potential victim. Both these gossip motives were related to an increased tendency to gossip. In Study 2 (N = 104), we manipulated whether participants were the targets or observers of gossip and whether the gossip was true or false. Results showed that targets of negative gossip intended to increase their work effort in the short run, but only when the gossip was true. Furthermore, gossip targets reported lower long-term cooperative intentions toward their workgroup regardless of gossip veracity. This paper demonstrates that gossip has both a "dark" and "bright" side and that situational factors and agent perspectives determine which side prevails.

Which antecedents and group processes are beneficial to creativity in groups? Taking a component-based approach of individualism–collectivism (I-C), we proposed that the combination of collectivistic value orientation and independent self-representation of group members enhances group creativity. In an interactive group brainstorming experiment ( N = 68 triads), we manipulated group members’ value orientation and their self-representation via priming methods and examined group creativity using both a consensual and an objective measure of idea originality. Results indicated that groups generated ideas that are more original when members combined a collectivistic value orientation with independent self-representation than with interdependent self-representation. In contrast, differences in self-representation did not have a significant effect when an individualistic value orientation was activated. We also identified specific group processes characteristic of the predicted combinatorial effect: In creative groups, there was more open communication. Implications of these findings for research on group creativity and future directions are discussed.

While emotional intelligence (EI) is recognized as a resource in social interactions, we hypothesized a positive association with stress in socially evaluative contexts. In particular, we expected emotion recognition, the core component of EI, to inflict stress on individuals in negatively valenced interactions. We expected this association to be stronger for status-driven individuals, that is, for individuals scoring high on basal testosterone. In a laboratory experiment, N = 166 male participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test (Kirschbaum, Pirke, & Hellhammer, 1993). As expected, EI measured by the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT V2.0; Mayer et al., 2003) predicted higher cortisol reactivity, including slower recovery from stress. The effect was moderated by basal testosterone, such that the association was positive when basal testosterone was high but not when it was low. On the component level of EI, the interaction was replicated for negative emotion recognition. These findings lend support to the hypothesis that EI is associated with higher activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in contexts where social status is at stake, particularly for those individuals who are more status-driven. Thus, the effects of EI are not unequivocally positive: While EI may positively affect the course of social interactions, it also inflicts stress on the emotionally intelligent individuals themselves. (PsycINFO Database Record

Impostorism denotes individuals who are successful in their jobs but who doubt their abilities relative to the demands of their jobs. This study analyzes to what extent impostorism affects leadership behavior of these individuals. A core component of leadership is task delegation, implying the empowerment of employees to take responsibility for more or less challenging projects. In a vignette study, N = 190 managers assigned both routine and challenging tasks to employees who allegedly possessed varying levels of self-confidence regarding their job-related abilities. Managers holding negative self-views of their own abilities and perceiving themselves as impostors in their jobs, preferred to delegate both challenging and routine tasks to employees whose self-views resembled those of the managers. This study clearly shows that managers' self-beliefs bias their task delegation decisions.

Whereas the positive relationship between positive affect in teams and team performance is well established, the relationship between team negative affect and team performance seems to be subject to moderating effects. We focus on the effects of perspective taking as one of these moderators, and posit that perspective taking impedes team performance when team state affect is negative because team members become preoccupied with others’ negative emotions. Results from 49 teams involved in a computerized interactive decision-making task support our hypothesis: Negative state affect was negatively related to performance for teams high in perspective taking, but not for teams low in perspective taking. This leads to the conclusion that when teams experience high negative affect, they benefit from low perspective taking.

Theoretischer Hintergrund: Es gibt Hinweise, dass Ekelempfindlichkeit (Neigung, mit Ekel zu reagieren) und Ekelsensitivität (Neigung, Ekelempfindungen negativ zu bewerten) eine Rolle bei der Entstehung und Aufrechterhaltung der Hypochondrie spielen. Fragestellung: Besteht ein Zusammenhang zwischen Ekelempfindlichkeit bzw. Ekelsensitivität und hypochondrischen Merkmalen? Bleiben diese Zusammenhänge bei statistischer Kontrolle anderer Persönlichkeitseigenschaften bestehen? Methodik: Sechsundvierzig Probandinnen bearbeiteten folgende Fragebögen: Whiteley-Index (hypochondrische Merkmale), Fragebogen zur Erfassung der Ekelempfindlichkeit, Skala zur Erfassung der Ekelsensitivität, Angst-Sensitivitäts-Index, State-Trait-Angst-Depressions-Inventar (Ängstlichkeit). Ergebnisse: Es zeigten sich jeweils positive Zusammenhänge zwischen Ekelempfindlichkeit bzw. Ekelsensitivität und Krankheitsängsten. Auch nach Kontrolle des Lebensalters, Angstsensitivität und Ängstlichkeit konnten beide Ekeldomänen zusätzlich 12 % der Varianz von Krankheitsängsten aufklären. Schlussfolgerung: Die Bedeutung von Ekel für hypochondrische Merkmale erscheint größer als bisher angenommen.

Individuals' attributions about conflict influence their behaviour: Appraising conflict as relationship-oriented rather than task-oriented increases individuals' likelihood to engage in conflict-escalating behaviour. This study analysed to what extent emotion recognition influences people's conflict appraisal in teams. Seventy individuals assigned to teams reported on their team conflicts once a week over the course of 2.5 months. The results show that team members high in emotion recognition tend to make more relationship-oriented conflict attributions. At the same time, they make less task-oriented conflict attributions. This tendency towards relationship-oriented attributions was moderated by team-level agreeableness and extraversion: Individuals high in emotion recognition perceived more relationship conflict the lower the average level of agreeableness and extraversion in their teams. © 2013 Copyright Taylor and Francis Group, LLC.

Following up on earlier investigations, the present research aims at validating the construct impostor phenomenon by taking other personality correlates into account and to examine whether the impostor phenomenon is a construct in its own right. In addition, gender effects as well as associations with dispositional working styles and strain are examined. In an online study we surveyed a sample of N = 242 individuals occupying leadership positions in different sectors. Confirmatory factor analyses provide empirical evidence for the discriminant validity of the impostor phenomenon. In accord with earlier studies we show that the impostor phenomenon is accompanied by higher levels of anxiety, dysphoric moods, emotional instability, a generally negative self-evaluation, and perfectionism. The study does not reveal any gender differences concerning the impostor phenomenon. With respect to working styles, persons with an impostor self-concept tend to show perfectionist as well as procrastinating behaviors. Moreover, they report being more stressed and strained by their work. In sum, the findings show that the impostor phenomenon constitutes a dysfunctional personality style. Practical implications are discussed.

Previous field studies on the glass cliff hypothesis in corporate settings focused on the Anglo-American context and yielded mixed results. This study analyzes promotion patterns to executive boards in Germany, the country of largest economic power in Europe. Screening the boards of all 160 firms listed in the German DAX-30, MDAX, SDAX and TecDAX from 1999 to 2014 yields a sample of 75 female executive director appointments; this sample is matched with an equal number of male directors. For two years before and after board members’ appointments, we measure company performance by daily stock prices and annual accounting-based measures. Results contradict the glass cliff hypothesis: Firms more likely promote women to their boards in times of stability. After the appointment decision, they continue to perform better than their competitors appointing men. Nonetheless, shareholders disapprove of the appointment of women, particularly in times of crises.

The authors review the Motivated Information Processing in Groups Model (De Dreu, Nijstad, & Van Knippenberg, 2008) to understand group creativity and innovation. Although distinct phenomena, group creativity and innovation are both considered a function of epistemic motivation (EM; the degree to which group members tend to systematically process and disseminate information), and prosocial motivation (PSM; the extent to which group members seek collective [rather than personal] gain). EM is considered a function of, for example, time constraints, accountability pressures, preference diversity, openness to experience, and ambiguity aversion. PSM is stronger under, for example, participative decision making, shared social identity, and collective reward schemes. A review of the authors' work, and that of others, supports the prediction that group creativity and innovation is higher when group members combine high EM with a PSM. Avenues for new research and practical implications are discussed.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate whether and how climate strength and quality are related to employee commitment above and beyond individual climate perceptions.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from 48 work units in organizations from different branches of industry. A total of 419 employees completed a questionnaire.FindingsClimate quality was related to commitment above and beyond individual climate perceptions. However, this concerned the climate dimensions of cooperation and innovation, but not reward. Climate strength moderated the relationship between individual cooperation and innovation perceptions, and commitment.Research limitations/implicationsThis study emphasizes the importance of group‐level perceptions as related to employee commitment. Because of the cross‐sectional design, conclusions about the causal order of the variables cannot be drawn.Practical implicationsIf organizations want to increase employees' commitment they should put the more skeptical employees in positive work environments, thus, in units of higher cooperation and innovation quality.Social implicationsPeople are sensitive to the evaluative tone of their social environment.Originality/valueThe paper is the first to examine the combined relationships of individual climate perceptions, climate‐strength, and climate quality with employee commitment.

There is ample empirical evidence for negative effects of emotional labor (surface acting and deep acting) on workers' well-being. This study analyzed to what extent workers' ability to recognize others' emotions may buffer these effects. In a 4-week study with 85 nurses and police officers, emotion recognition moderated the relationship between emotional labor and work engagement: Workers with high emotion recognition engaging in emotional labor did not report lower work engagement after 4 weeks, whereas those with low emotion recognition did. These effects pertained to both surface and deep acting. The results suggest that emotional labor be not necessarily detrimental to workers' engagement. Instead, the impact of emotional labor hinges upon workers' ability to correctly identify interaction partners' emotions. © 2011 American Psychological Association.

This study analyzes the glass cliff phenomenon with performance data of listed firms in Germany and the United Kingdom from 2005 to 2015, allowing for the analysis of national culture and the historical event of the financial crisis as potential moderators of the glass cliff. The German sample comprises all women and men promoted to management boards of firms listed in the DAX-30, MDAX, SDAX and TecDAX; the British sample consists of all women and men promoted to the boards of FTSE 100 firms during the same period. Firms’ performance is monitored for two years before new board members are appointed. The results are consistent in both countries: If their performance declines, firms more likely promote men to their management boards. Thus, there is no evidence for a glass cliff in corporate contexts.

Depression is one of the most frequent psychic impairments prevalent among bullying targets. It is typically characterized by an internal, global, and stable explanatory style. However, whether bullying targets with depression would apply this style to explain their social conflicts at work was unclear. Therefore, individuals who had been bullied and developed depression were compared to individuals with depression who had not been bullied. Both groups differed significantly regarding their explanatory style, as individuals with bullying experience made more external attributions to explain social conflicts they had experienced both at work and in their private lives. This preference did not change over the course of a 6-week in-patient psychotherapy programme.

In 4 studies we examined the relationship between self-concept clarity and conflict management. Individuals with higher self-concept clarity were overall more active and showed more cooperative problem-solving behavior than people with low self-concept clarity. There were no relationships with contending or yielding. The positive relationship with cooperative behavior was mediated by less rumination (Study 2) and moderated by conflict intensity (Study 3). Specifically, it applied to relatively mild conflicts (Study 3). Finally, Study 4 extended these findings to the group level: Dyad members with higher self-concept clarity engaged in problem solving, whereas dyad members with lower self-concept clarity did not. We conclude that higher self-concept clarity associates with proactive problem solving in social conflict.

Challenging job experiences are considered important prerequisites for management development and career success. Several researchers have suggested that women are given fewer challenging assignments than their male colleagues. To test this idea we performed two studies. The first examined possible gender differences in challenging job experiences at middle job levels. The results indicated that female employees had fewer challenging experiences in their jobs than their male counterparts. The second explored the proposition that differential assignment of challenging tasks to male and female subordinates underlies gender differences in job challenge. The results indeed suggest that supervisors' task allocation decisions are not gender-blind and may result in women having fewer challenging job experiences than men.

Sometimes social influence processes are the driving force behind the creation of new products, services, and modes of conduct. In this paper we argue that minority dissent and its ensuing influence provides an example par excellence, and we reviewed and interpret findings on minority influence and creativity in terms of the motivated information processing in groups model (MIP‐G model; De Dreu et al., 2008). In essence, we argue that minority dissent produces creativity and innovation when majority members have (a) high rather than low epistemic motivation and concomitant willingness to engage in deep and deliberate processing of information, and (b) a pro‐social motivation and focus on group successes rather than personal outcomes. Evidence from both laboratory and organizational field research is discussed and practical implications as well as avenues for further research are highlighted. Preparation of this article was facilitated by a 6th framework Network of Excellence EU‐Grant (SUS.DIV) awarded to ...

What are the antecedents of counterproductive behaviour (CB) at work? Previous research identified both trait and perceived situational variables such as dispositional self-control and organizational justice. In this article, the focus is on employees' perceived job demands. More specifically, the relation between emotional labour (surface and deep acting) and CB is examined. An online study with service providers from different lines of business (N = 559) confirmed that, while controlling for dispositional self-control and organizational injustice, both surface and deep acting in customer interactions were related to CB at work. Whereas the most influential variable was dispositional self-control, the findings confirm that people's perceived job demands contribute to deviant behaviour at work. Practical implications for job design are discussed.

Call centres have been one of the few booming branches in recent years. The main task of call centre operators is to interact with customers by telephone, usually supported by computer systems. It has been argued that call centre work is a modern form of “Taylorism”, because it is characterized by routine tasks, and low level of control for the employees. Moreover, it has been suggested that there is a high level of stress at work, both with regard to the work tasks and to the interactions with customers. In the present study a sample of 375 call centre employees from eight different call centres was compared with a sample of noncall centre workers (N = 405) in terms of job characteristics, job stressors, and emotional labour (emotion work). The results showed that call centre workers had worse job characteristics, but were better off with regard to most job stressors compared to representative comparison groups of no-service workers, service workers, and workers in human services respectively. Moreover, ...

In the present study we explore and compare the effects of inter-organisational boundaryless careers on gender-wise real salary growth. We analyse career paths of over 10600 individuals from the German Socio Economic Panel by utilizing the latent basis growth curve modelling, and find that (i) boundaryless careers result in real salary growth for both genders, yet (ii) women’s salaries grow faster in boundaryless careers than men’s. Furthermore, we find no evidence that boundaryless careers contribute to the narrowing or closure of the gender salary gap, because both genders benefit equally well from boundaryless careers, yet under certain conditions the salary gap can actually widen. Lastly, we find support for arguments from previous research that intra-organisational careers are more desirable, considering that overall they result in higher attained salaries. We provide implications for HR managers and professionals on how to manage their internal labour market with regard to the boundaryless careers, ...

It has been argued that groups with individualistic norms are more creative than groups with collectivistic norms (Goncalo &. Staw, 2006). This conclusion, however, may be too unspecific, as individualism-collectivism denotes a multidimensional continuum and may affect people's self-construal and values. This study analyzed to what extent these dimensions differentially impact upon group creativity. After manipulating self-construal and value orientation, 58 triads engaged in a brainstorming task. Groups with collectivistic value orientation generated more ideas than groups with individualistic value orientation. Furthermore, there was an interaction between value orientation and self-construal on originality: ideas were more original when group members combined collectivistic value orientation with individualistic self-construal. Thus, groups should integrate elements of both individualism and collectivism to ensure high creativity. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In customer interactions, emotional display rules typically prescribe service providers to suppress negative emotions and display positive ones. This study investigated the causal impact of these emotional display rules on physiological indicators of workers' stress and performance. Additionally, the moderating influence of personality was examined by analyzing the impact of trait anger. In a simulated call center, 82 females were confronted with a complaining customer and instructed to react either authentically and show their true emotions or to "serve with a smile" and hide negative emotions. Increases in diastolic blood pressure and heart rates were higher in the smile condition, while verbal fluency was lower. Trait anger moderated the effects on diastolic blood pressure and observer ratings' of participants' professional competence, suggesting more negative effects for high trait anger individuals. Findings imply that emotional display rules may increase call center employees' strain and that considering employees' personality may be crucial for precluding health and performance impairments among call center workers.

The extent to which groups are creative has wide implications for their overall performance, including the quality of their problem solutions, judgments, and decisions. To further understanding of group creativity, we integrate the motivated information processing in groups model (De Dreu, Nijstad, & Van Knippenberg, 2008) with work on epistemic social tuning (Lunn, Sinclair, Whitchurch, & Glenn, 2007). Three propositions were advanced: (a) Groups produce more ideas when members have high rather than low epistemic motivation, especially when members also have a prosocial rather than pro-self motivation; (b) these ideas are more original, appropriate, or feasible when a group norm favors originality, appropriateness, or feasibility; and (c) originality is valued more in individualistic cultures (e.g., the Netherlands), whereas appropriateness is valued more in collectivist cultures (e.g., Korea). Four studies involving 3-person groups generating ideas supported these propositions: Epistemic motivation (mild vs. intense time pressure; presence vs. absence of process accountability) stimulated production andoriginality, especially when prosocial rather than pro-self motives were present and participants were Dutch or originality norms were experimentally primed. When appropriateness norms were primed or participants were Korean, epistemic motivation stimulated production and appropriateness, especially when prosocial rather than pro-self motives were present. We discuss implications for research on group processes and for work on culture and creativity.

Promotability evaluations are important for individuals' career development and organizations' human resource management practices. Nevertheless, little empirical research has addressed predictors of promotability evaluations, and the studies that have, have often focused on current job performance and fixed, nonbehavioral predictors. This study takes a more behavioral approach, and investigates whether besides how one performs (i.e., job performance) what one performs also serves as an indicator of promotability. Specifically, we examine the relationship between employees' challenging job experiences and supervisors' evaluations of employees' promotability over and above employees' current job performance. Results from 3 field studies, sampling different types of employees via different measures, consistently showed that challenging job experiences explained incremental variance in supervisory and organizational evaluations of promotability over and above current job performance and job tenure.