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Bats commonly use highway infrastructure as day- or night-roosts. Nonetheless, little is known regarding how regularly bats use these structures or whether they do so only on a seasonal basis. We surveyed 13 parallel box beam bridges along 15 km of State Highway 17 in Jeff Davis County, Texas monthly for 12 months to examine seasonality of day-roost use. Bats using bridges, ranked based on abundance, were: Tadarida brasiliensis , Myotis velifer , M. californicus/ciliolabrum , M. yumanensis , Antrozous pallidus, and M. thysanodes . Myotis velifer , M. californicus/ciliolabrum , and M. yumanensis exhibited significant differences among bridges and significant seasonality in roost use. Tadarida brasiliensis exhibited significant differences among bridges but no significant seasonality of bridge use. Seasonality of use of bridges as day-roosts likely reflects seasonal patterns of distribution of species in the Trans-Pecos. Moreover, these results suggest that surveys of bats roosting in highway infrastructure should be planned carefully and consider the seasonal nature of roost use

Interest in the study of mycotic diseases in bats has increased after the identification of bats affected by white-nose syndrome in the northern United States. In a temperate forest of the community of San Pedro Yolox, Ixtlán in the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca, Mexico, we collected bats of various species, including 13 specimens of Myotis velifer that showed lesions in the plagio- and uro-patagium. Clinical exploration, histopathological studies and molecular analysis were carried out to determine the causal agent of the lesions present in these individuals. It was determined that the cause was the pathogenic fungus Debaryomyces spp. The present study represents the first report of fungal infection in bats in southern Mexico.

Bats are carriers of potentially zoonotic viruses, therefore it is crucial to identify viruses currently found in bats to better understand how they are maintained in bat populations and evaluate risks for transmission to other species. Adenoviruses have been previously detected in bats throughout the world, but sampling is still limited. In this study, 30 pooled-guano samples were collected from a cave roost of Myotis velifer in Oklahoma. A portion of the DNA polymerase gene from Adenoviridae was amplified successfully in 18 M. velifer samples; however, DNA sequence was obtained from only 6 of these M. velifer samples. One was collected in October 2016, one in March 2017, and 4 in July 2017. The October and March samples contained viral DNA that was 3.1% different from each other but 33% different than the novel viral sequence found in the July 2017 samples. Phylogenetic analysis of these fragments confirmed our isolates were from the genus Mastadenovirus and had genetic diversity ranging from 20 to 50% when compared to other bat adenoviruses.

White-nose syndrome (WNS), a fungal disease that has caused catastrophic population declines of bats in eastern North America, is rapidly spreading across the continent and now threatens previously unexposed bat species in western North America. The causal agent of WNS, the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, can infect many species of hibernating bats, but susceptibility to WNS varies by host species. We previously reported that certain traits of the skin microbiome, particularly yeast diversity and abundance, of bat species in eastern North America are strongly associated with resistance to WNS. Using these traits, we developed models to predict WNS susceptibility of 13 species of western North American bats. Based on models derived from yeast species diversity, only one bat species, Myotis velifer, was predicted to be WNS resistant (i.e., may develop the disease, but with low mortality rates). We also screened yeasts found on western bats for P. destructans-antagonistic properties by spore germination and growth inhibition/competition assays and found the ability of yeasts to inhibit P. destructans in vitro to be strain specific. Similar to results of inhibition assays performed with yeasts isolated from bats in eastern North America, few yeasts isolated from bats in western North America inhibited P. destructans in vitro. Continued monitoring of western bat populations will serve to validate the accuracy of the mycobiome analysis in predicting WNS susceptibility, document population and susceptibility trends, and identify additional predictors to assess the vulnerability of naive bat populations to WNS. IMPORTANCE White-nose syndrome is one of the most devastating wildlife diseases ever documented. Some bat species are resistant to or tolerant of the disease, and we previously reported that certain traits of the skin mycobiome of bat species in eastern North America are strongly associated with resistance to WNS. Predicting which western bat species will be most susceptible to WNS would be of great value for establishing conservation priorities. Based on models derived from yeast species diversity, only one bat species was predicted to be WNS resistant. High susceptibility to WNS would pose a significant conservation threat to bats in western North America.

A putative novel clade within the genus Streptomyces was discovered following antifungal screening against Pseudogymnoascus destructans, the causative agent of white-nose syndrome, and described using multi-locus sequencing analysis. Swabs from both the cave myotis bat (Myotis velifer) and the Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) in southern New Mexico bore isolates AC536, AC541(T) and AC563, which were characterised using phylogenetic, morphological, and phenotypic analyses. Multi-locus sequence analysis positions AC541(T) with neighbors Streptomyces rubidus (NRRL B-24619(T)), Streptomyces guanduensis (NRRL B-24617(T)), and Streptomyces yeochonensis (NRRL B-24245(T)). A complete genome of the type strain was assembled to determine its taxonomy and secondary metabolite potential. ANI comparisons between all closely related types strains are shown to be well below the 95–96% species delineation. DNA-DNA relatedness between AC541(T) and its nearest neighbors ranged between 23.7 and 24.1% confirming novelty. Approximately 1.49 Mb or 17.76% of the whole genome is devoted to natural product biosynthesis. The DNA G + C content of the genomic DNA of the type strain is 73.13 mol %. Micromorphology depicts ovoid spores with smooth surfaces in flexuous chains. Strains presented an ivory to yellow hue on most ISP media except inorganic salts-starch agar (ISP4) and can grow on d-glucose, mannitol, and d-fructose, but exhibited little to no growth on l-arabinose, sucrose, d-xylose, inositol, l-rhamnose, d-raffinose, and cellulose. This clade possesses the capability to grow from 10 to 45 °C and 12.5% (w/v) NaCl. There was strain growth variation in pH, but all isolates thrive at alkaline levels. Based on our polyphasic study of AC541(T), the strain warrants the assignment to a novel species, for which the name Streptomyces buecherae sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AC541(T) (= JCM 34263(T), = ATCC TSD201(T)).

This work describes the echolocation pulses produced by Myotis velifer during postnatal development. The aim was to record the changes of these calls during the development of this bat species and investigate the underlying causes. Bat specimens were sampled in El Salitre cave, Morelos, Mexico, during May and June 2016, where juvenile bats were captured and sorted into five age classes. Forearm length was used as reference for offspring growth. Each juvenile bat was induced to fly and the echolocation calls produced were recorded using an ultrasound detector. Six quantitative characteristics of the echolocation pulses of each call were measured, which served as reference to explore the development of this system during growth through a linear regression. A steady increase in the frequency parameters associated with bat growth was observed, coupled with a decrease in the temporal parameters. The final pulse frequency was the only parameter that remained unchanged during postnatal growth. The major changes in the characteristics of echolocation pulses during postnatal growth in M. velifer follow the pattern observed in other species previously studied. These changes are likely related to the development of organs and muscles involved in the emission and reception of sound, and to the learning process involved in the use of this adaptation.

397. Cave Myotis Myotis velifer French: Murin des grottes / German: Hohlenmausohr / Spanish: Ratonero de las cavernas Taxonomy. Vespertilio velifer J. A. Allen, 1890, “Sta. [= Santa] Cruz del Valle, Guadalajara, Jalisco,” Mexico. Subgenus Pizonyx; albescens species group. Three subspecies recognized. Subspecies and Distribution. M.v.veliferJ.A.Allen,1890—-fromSAri-zona(USA)toHonduras. M.v.grandisHayward,1970—CUSA,fromSNebraskatoOklahomaandNTexas. M. v. incautusJ. A. Allen, 1896 — S USA,in S Texas and NW Mexico. Descriptive notes. Head-body c¢. 45-54 mm, tail 35-55 mm, hindfoot 7-12 mm, forearm 36- 5—47 mm; weight 6-11 g. Females are significantly larger than males. Fur is long and silky. Dorsal hairs are bicolored, with blackish bases and dark brown to light brown or sepia tips. Ventral hairs are paler, with darkish bases and bufftips. Ears are comparatively medium-sized (length 13-17 mm), have lobe in base of internal edge, and extend beyond tip of nose. Membranes are mummy brown. Plagiopatagium is attached to feet by a broad band of membrane, and upper and lower surfaces of uropatagium are barely covered with hairs. Skull is robust and large (greatest length of skull 14-2-17- 6 mm); rostrum is broad dorsally butlittle less than that of braincase; sagittal crest is well developed; and lambdoidal crests are present, ranging from low to high. Molars are robust and large; width compared with palatine is greater than in any other American Myotis. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 44 and FN = 50 with one pair of small biarmed autosomes, three pairs of large biarmed autosomes, and 17 acrocentric pairs of varying size. X- and Y-chromosomes are submetacentric. Habitat. Wide variety of habitats including deciduous rainforests, thorny rainforests, xeric scrublands, oak forests, pine forests, fir forests, and disturbed environments (e.g. agricultural mosaics and suburban areas) from sea level up to elevations above 3000 m. Food and Feeding. The Cave Myotis forages just above vegetation, capturing prey in flight. Individuals forage more in open areas adjacent to wooded vegetation and high over canyon systems on warmer nights but closer to dense vegetation on cooler nights. Diets vary by season and habitat. In Arizona and northern Mexico, small moths (Lepidoptera) are most commonly consumed; in Kansas, beetles (Coleoptera) are more common in stomachs than moths, but variation in prey species did occur over time. Other insects (e.g. Diptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera) occur in diets. Breeding. Mating of the Cave Myotis occurs in hibernacula in autumn, and copulations are probably repeated during wakeful periods in winter. Sperm are stored in uterus during winter, and ovulation and fertilization occurs in April after females awake from hibernation. Females form maternity colonies in warmer parts of caves, under bridges, and in other locations. Maternal colonies with males present have been reported, but there is a tendency to sexually segregate after young are born. Gestation lasts ¢.60-70 days, with one young being born in late June or early July in northern populations and mid-April and May in southern populations. Neonates are ¢.25% of adult weight, which is reached at c.9 weeks of age. Young initiated flight at c.3 weeks old, and they began to forage at c.4 weeks. Males might not become reproductively active until their second year, and spermatogenesis occurs in late summer and early autumn. Females become reproductively active in their first year oflife. Activity patterns. Cave Myotis emerge from diurnal roosts ¢.30 minutes after sunset, depending on cloud cover, vegetation, topography, and season. Normally, they feed twice during the night, with major period of activity soon after sunset and shorter period just before sunrise. Nearly 80% of daily food consumption occursin the first two hours after initial emergence. Apparently, most individuals move directly to a stream or other water resource to drink shortly after emerging. Cave Myotis roost in caves but occasionally in crevices in rocks and walls, mine tunnels, and old buildings and under bridges. In winter, they seem to prefer caves with high humidity and permanent streams. Movements, Home range and Social organization. There is evidence that Cave Myotis have home ranges of several hundred square kilometers during non-migratory times of the year. In a field experiment, more than 50% of individuals released c. 60 km from their hibernaculum was able to return, although other caves were closer to the release area. There is also evidence of individuals returning to the same locality every year during the reproductive season. Populations from Kansas and Texas appear to be permanent residents, hibernating in caves during winter. Few seem to overwinter to California and Arizona, suggesting they move south. Populations in Mexico migrate to higher elevations in winter to hibernate. Colonies generally have 2000-5000 individuals but sometimes as many as 20,000 individuals. They can occur in close association with other bat species, such as the Brazilian Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) and the Yuma Myotis (M. yumanensis). Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Cave Myotis is widespread and presumably has a large population. Bibliography. Castro-Campillo et al. (2014), Davis, R. (1966), Davis, R. & Cockrum (1965), Dunnigan & Fitch 1967), Fitch et al. (1981), Hall & Dalquest (1963), Hayward (1970), Krutzsch (1961), Kunz (1973b, 1974), Solari 2019k), Tinkle & Patterson (1965), Wilson & Ruff (1999)., Published as part of Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2019, Vespertilionidae, pp. 716-981 in Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona :Lynx Edicions on pages 938-939, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.6397752

How species will respond to ongoing and future climate change is one of the most important questions facing biodiversity scientists today. The fossil record provides unparalleled insight into past ecological and evolutionary responses to climate change, but the resource remains virtually untapped for many organisms. We use geometric morphometrics and a 25,000 year fossil record to quantify changes in body size and mandible shape through time and across climate regimes for two bat species present in Quaternary paleontological deposits of central Texas: Myotis velifer, a bat distributed throughout the Southwestern US and Mexico that is still found in central Texas today, and Eptesicus fuscus, a bat widely distributed throughout North America that has been extirpated in central Texas. Because of ecogeographic rules like Bergmann’s rule, which posits that endotherms are larger in colder environments, we hypothesized that both species were larger during cooler time intervals. Additionally, we hypothesized that both species would show variation in dental morphology across the studied sequence as a response to climate change. While we found a decrease in centroid size–a proxy for ­­body size–through time for both species, we could not establish a clear relationship between centroid size and temperature alone. However, we did find that specimens from drier environments were significantly larger than those from wetter ones. Furthermore, we found significant dental shape variation between environments reflecting different temperature levels for both species. Yet only M. velifer exhibited significant variation between environments of varying precipitation levels. This result was surprising because present-day populations of E. fuscus are highly variable across both temperature and precipitation gradients. We determined that the morphological change experienced by M. velifer through time, and between warmer and cooler temperatures, was associated with the coronoid process, condylar process, and the mandibular symphysis. These parts play a pivotal role in bite force, so changes in these features might relate to changes in diet. We show that long-term datasets derived from fossil material provide invaluable insight not only into the validity of ecogeographic rules, but also into the adaptive capacities of extant taxa when faced with environmental changes. Our results highlight diverging responses to a variety of climate factors that are relevant to consider in biodiversity research given ongoing global change.

Los murciélagos han sido el único grupo de mamíferos con la capacidad de desarrollar el vuelo. Este sistema de desplazamiento es bastante efectivo sin embargo necesita de grandes cantidades de energía para ser utilizado, es por esto que los murciélagos han desarrollado adaptaciones morfológicas y fisiológicas como el alargamiento de las falanges, el desarrollo del patagio y el intercambio gaseoso a través del patagio. México posee 144 especies de murciélagos, de las cuales 96 se encuentran en el estado de Oaxaca. En el estado se han realizado diversos estudios sobre ecología, sin embargo, aún no se ha evaluado la salud dermatológica de este grupo. El objetivo del siguiente trabajo fue identificar la presencia de patógenos micóticos en cuatro localidades del Estado donde se reportaron murciélagos con lesiones dermatológicas en las alas. El trabajo está dividido en dos capítulos; el primer capítulo aborda la identificación histopatológica y molecular del hongo Debaryomyces sp.infectando un murciélago Myotis velifer,en la comunidad San Pedro Yolox, en la Sierra Norte de Oaxaca. El capítulo dos aborda el diseño de una prueba de PCR de punto final para la identificación de Debaryomyces sp, y la aplicación de una prueba de PCR de punto final previamente reportada para la detección de Pseudogymnoascus destrcutans agente causante del síndrome de nariz blanca, así como el análisis histopatológico de las lesiones mostradas en murciélagos de San Pedro Yolox, en San Sebastián de las Grutas, San Pedro Molinos y Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca.El trabajo presenta el primer reporte sobre la presencia de Debaryomyces sp.y P. destructans afectando murciélagos en México, así como la primera vez que estas enfermedades son detectadas en la región neo-tropical afectando una especie no reportada como susceptible a éstas (Sturnira ludovici).

White-nose syndrome is an often lethal fungal infection of bats that is caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans, formerly Geomyces destructans. The fungal spores can persist for extended periods of time in the soil and on surfaces in caves where it might be found even after the bats depart. In 2010, a single bat, Myotis velifer, from a western Oklahoma gypsum cave, was initially diagnosed by the U.S. Geological Survey National Wildlife Health Center, as “suspect white-nose syndrome.” Based on this, we decided to examine soil samples from various bat caves across Oklahoma for the presence of P. destructans. We used Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction to analyze 83 soil samples from 17 caves in Oklahoma. None of the soil samples were found to contain genetic material from P. destructans. We postulate that P. destructans has not yet reached Oklahoma because of the negative Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction results, because a National Wildlife Health Center reexamination of the original b...

This is the first investigation to determine if bats from western Oklahoma have antibodies against Pseudogymnoascus destructans (Pd), the causative agent of White-nose syndrome in bats. The bats examined came from caves near the western most locality in the United States where a bat suspected of having Pd had been reported. A total of fifty-one serum samples were obtained from cave myotis (Myotis velifer), big brown (Eptesicus fuscus) and Townsends big-eared (Corynorhinus townsendii) bats from western Oklahoma between January and February of 2011 and 2012. Nobuto strips containing blood samples from South African bats (Rhinolophus denti, Neoromicia capensis, Hipposideros commersoni, Nycteris thebaica) were used as negative controls. None of the African bats examined appeared to have antibodies against Pd. Thirteen M. velifer (41% of the Oklahoman bats) tested appeared to have antibodies against some strains of Pseudogymnoascus but it is unclear if they have antibodies specifically against Pd.

We examined the emergence patterns of Myotis velifer in central Texas in 2000 and assessed exposure to pesticide residues. We collected and analyzed guano from three caves for pesticide residues. In addition, bat carcasses were sampled from an active colony of cave myotis (Myotis velifer) in Shell Mountain. Organochlorine residue concentrations were highest in guano from the Egypt and Tippit Caves, whereas organophosphate concentrations were highest in Shell Mountain guano. Residue concentrations of organochlorines and metals in guano and carcasses collected from the three caves are considered low and probably of no biological concern. The study was one of very few to demonstrate the presence of OPs, including 18 different detectable compounds in the two most recent samples of bat guano. Comparisons between spring and fall guano samples from Shell Mountain suggest that HCB (hexachlorobenzene), total chlordanes, dieldrin, endrin, endosulfan II, p,p&rsquo, DDE (Dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl) ethylene), and o,p&rsquo, DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) accumulated while bats were absent from the caves at Fort Hood. Lindane appeared to be the only chemical that increased while the bats were present at the site. Organochlorine concentrations in carcasses were generally lowest in lactating females and higher in nursing juveniles. The pattern of emergence coincides with the peak of agricultural activities, therefore, bats forage at a time when the insect pests are most abundant, but also potential to exposure to agricultural chemicals is highest. The current status of the population, however, remains stable in spite of the history of exposure.

We report on variation in abundance of hibernating cave myotis (Myotis velifer) prior to the arrival of White-nose Syndrome. The report is based on cave surveys and literature reports in gypsum caves of western Oklahoma and the Texas panhandle. From 1988 to 2017, 34,625–195,234 M. velifer were estimated to occur in the hibernacula surveyed. This report provides important preexposure baseline data on population sizes in the region and will help researchers quantify the impact as the disease spreads into new environs. The population estimates will also serve as a data set for other research. Other species of bats encountered in the surveys were Townsend's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii), the tricolored bat (Perimyotis subflavus), and the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus). The changes in population sizes at the various hibernacula might be owing to a variety of factors, including annual variations in hibernacula microclimates, structural changes in hibernacula, changes in distribution patterns, ability of surveyors to locate and count bats, alterations of the surrounding habitats near hibernacula, or other unknown factors.

The mechanism of reproduction in mammals is very complex and in some cases is quite particular. For example in some bat species, the male presents a reproductive mechanism characterized by an annual testicular cycle that goes from recrudescence to regression (spermatogenesis to inactivity period, respectively). After recrudescence, the spermatozoa arrive at epididymis and wait to be expelled at the time of ejaculation during the mating period, which occurs some months later. Because serotonin (5-HT) has gained reproductive importance in the last years, the aim of the present study was to analyze the expression of this indolamine and both tryptophan hydroxylase and monoamine oxidase isoform A—enzymes involved in its metabolism—in Myotis velifer testes, a seasonal reproductive bat species that shows temporal asynchrony in its sexual cycle, across the principal periods of their reproductive cycle. By using both Falck-Hillarp histochemistry and immunofluorescence techniques, wefound serotonin in vesicles ofLeydig cells and probably Sertoli cells too; interestingly, both intracellular localization and concentration was variable across the different stages of the reproductive cycle, being lower during spermatogenesis phase and increasing during the mating phase. These results suggest that 5-HT is present in bat testes and it could play an important role in testicular function during their reproductive cycle. J. Exp. Zool.

Zoonosis is the leading cause of emerging infectious diseases. In a recent article, R. S. Shabman et al. (mSphere 1[1]:e00070-15, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mSphere.00070-15 ) report the identification of a novel gammaherpesvirus in a cell line derived from the microbat Myotis velifer incautus. This is the first report on a replicating, infectious gammaherpesvirus from bats. The new virus is named bat gammaherpesvirus 8 (BGHV8), also known as Myotis gammaherpesvirus 8, and is able to infect multiple cell lines, including those of human origin. Using next-generation sequencing technology, the authors constructed a full-length annotated genomic map of BGHV8. Phylogenetic analysis of several genes from BGHV8 revealed similarity to several mammalian gammaherpesviruses, including Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV).

El presente trabajo es el primer listado de murciélagos cavernícolas que se realiza en el Complejo Volcánico de Colima, incluye registros bibliográficos y muestreos en campo. Se listan 25 especies, seis son nuevos registros para el área ( Glossophaga morenoi , Hylonycteris underwoodi , Artibeus hirsutus , A. intermedius , Chiroderma salvini y Myotis velifer ). Se registran y describen los disturbios antrópicos de los refugios subterráneos del área habitados por murciélagos. Los refugios examinados fueron siete y cinco especies son las que los habitan. Los principales disturbios encontrados fueron el de la demolición y el turismo local. Los refugios con mayor disturbio son tres cuevas del Apastepetl y la cueva Argúm. También se incluye un estudio de categorías de riesgo basado en la abundancia y distribución en dos tipos de de bosque representativos del área. Se encontraron 17 especies de murciélagos en bosque mesófilo y bosque de Abies. Se obtuvo a siete especies dentro de las dos principales categorías de riesgo local. De las cuales Hylonycteris underwoodi y Artibeus hirsutus se incluyen en la categoría de localmente raras y restringidas.

Although the activity patterns of bats are recognized to vary widely, both, temporally and spatially, the underlying drivers for those patterns remain poorly understood. Presently, studies focusing on foraging bat ecology have only generalized activity and influence of the environment (across sampling periods, sampling nights, or seasons). The influence of environmental features on foraging bat activity on a finer temporal scale (e.g., throughout a single sampling night) is markedly less studied. The recent emergence of Pseudogymnoascus destructans, a cold-adapted fungus and the causative agent of white-nose syndrome (WNS), has led to the precipitous declines in North American bat populations since its arrival in 2006. P. destructans has been recently documented in 10 Texas counties and, although WNS primarily affects hibernation cycles, it is recognized to have significant detrimental impacts on summer bat activity. It is imperative we understand and provide a baseline of summer bat activity patterns prior to the arrival of WNS to better manage and protect these, relatively understudied, populations of bat species in south Texas. We used a mixed model approach and acoustic monitoring to quantify how shrub density, canopy height, distance to water, roads, and bare ground coverage influenced nightly foraging activities of four summer resident bat species in south Texas: Eastern Red Bat (Lasirius borealis), Cave Myotis (Myotis velifer), Evening Bat (Nycticeius humeralis), and Brazilian Free-tailed Bat (Tadarida brasiliensis). Total bat activity peaked at 2:00-a for all species included in our study. A secondary, smaller peak was notable between 5:00-a and 6:00-a and activity decreased sharply immediately following 6:00-a. However, the trend for total bat activity differed substantially from trends exhibited by the individual species. Eastern red-bats and Evening bats exhibited bimodal nightly activity patterns and showed variable associations with water proximity whereas Cave bats and Brazilian free-tailed bats exhibited unimodal activity patterns and strong associations with canopy height and roads. Our results support the concept that insectivorous bats partition resources, temporally and spatially, in the presence of other sympatric species. Keywords: Activity, Bat, Foraging, Nocturnal, Resource partitioning

Almost no studies have been done with respect to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) polymorphism and sequence diversity in bats, although they account for one in five living mammalian species. We analysed MHC Class II DRB polymorphism and sequence diversity in two Mexican verpertilionid bat species, the widespread continental species Myotis velifer and the narrowly distributed (and endangered) island endemic Myotis vivesi. We find extensive DRB polymorphism in the widespread M. velifer, similar to that commonly reported in other mammals. The geographically restricted M. vivesi by contrast shows only very limited polymorphism. We conclude that M. vivesi has undergone a dramatic loss of MHC polymorphism. The significance of this inference in light of other information on population structure and genetic diversity in this species is discussed.

We analyzed temporal variation in abundance of hibernating bats from long-term records (1965-2004) in gypsum caves of the Red Hills of Kansas and Oklahoma, a region lying at peripheries of geographic ranges of four species of bats. Nonparametric correlation analyses were used to evaluate variation in abundances of five species among 12 hibernacula. Townsend's big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) showed no significant change in abundance among most of its hibernacula, but exhibited one increase and one decrease in abundance in two hibernacula. The cave myotis (Myotis velifer) displayed increasing abundance in some hibernacula (27% of hibernacula, n 5 3) and one decrease (9% of hibernacula, n 5 1). The tri-colored bat (Perimyotis subflavus) exhibited increasing abundance in 60% (n 5 6) of its hibernacula. The pallid bat (Antrozous pallidus) and big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) exhibited no statistically significant change in size of population in any hibernaculum, although the pallid bat occurred infrequently and in low numbers (#11 individuals) in the hibernaculum where it was detected. The changes in abundance we detected may reflect range expansions of some species (e.g., tri-colored bat) or changes in qualities of hibernacula or other aspects of habitats, but underlying mechanisms are unknown.

This study characterized loss in body mass by the cave myotis, Myotis velifer, in 7 hibernation seasons (October–March 1979–1986) in western Oklahoma. Average mass entering hibernation was 14.4 g for males and 15.4 g for females. At the end of hibernation, average mass of males and females was 11.5 and 12.0 g, respectively. Males lost an average of 2.9 g (20.1%) and females lost 3.4 g (22.1%). During hibernation, males and females lost 0.021 and 0.024 g/day, respectively. We detected no difference in rate of loss of mass between the first and second halves of hibernation for either sex. Males and females lost 3.8 and 4.1 g, respectively, during 2005–2006, when only two visits were made to the cave (October and March). These values for loss in mass were slightly more than losses recorded for males and females when bats were sampled each month during hibernation.

The Brazilian free-tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis) experiences challenging thermal conditions while roosting in hot caves, flying during warm daylight conditions, and foraging at cool high altitudes. Using thermal infrared cameras, we identified hot spots along the flanks of free-ranging Brazilian free-tailed bats, ventral to the extended wings. These hot spots are absent in syntopic cave myotis (Myotis velifer), a species that forages over relatively short distances, and does not engage in long-distance migration. We hypothesized that the hot spots, or “radiators,” on Brazilian free-tailed bats may be adaptations for migration, particularly in this long-distance, high-flying species. We examined the vasculature of radiators on Brazilian free-tailed bats with transillumination to characterize the unique arrangements of arteries and veins that are positioned perpendicular to the body in the proximal region of the wing. We hypothesized that these radiators aid in maintaining heat balance by flushing the uninsulated thermal window with warm blood, thereby dissipating heat while bats are flying under warm conditions, but shunting blood away and conserving heat when they are flying in cooler air at high altitudes. We also examined fluid-preserved specimens representing 122 species from 15 of 18 chiropteran families and radiators appeared present only in species in the family Molossidae, including both sedentary and migratory species and subspecies. Thus, the radiator appears to be a unique trait that may facilitate energy balance and water balance during sustained dispersal, foraging, and long-distance migration.

This study examines the anatomical structure, function and seasonal cyclicity of the male and female reproductive organs of the cave myotis (Myotis velifer) in Texas and southern Arizona. The data indicated that this is a monestrous, seasonally breeding species that stores spermatozoa in both sexes during extended winter torpor or hibernation. The male reproductive cycle was characterized by asynchronous function of the testes (spermatogenesis) and accessory sex organs. Structural factors in both sexes and fructose levels in male accessory organs were evaluated for their significance in prolonged spermatozoa storage. The reproductive anatomy and chronology were similar to other temperate-dwelling vespertilionid bats. Dextral dominance was a feature of the female reproductive tract.

For insectivorous bats in temperate regions, energetic stresses imposed by the thermal environment of a roost might cause bats to be more selective of prey consumed to compensate for increased energetic demands. We collected samples of guano from beneath maternity roosts of Myotis velifer in caves and barns in the Red Hills region of southern Kansas. Caves were cooler than barns and, thus, imposed greater energetic stress on roosting bats. We analyzed food habits to determine if diet was associated with the thermal environment of roosts in caves and barns. Food habits of adult female bats roosting in caves and barns did not differ, suggesting that females are using other methods, most likely a combination of methods, to cope with cooler temperatures in caves.

One of two (50%) cave myotis, Myotis velifer, and one of five (20%) pallid bats, Antrozous pallidus, from Terrell Co., Texas, were infected with lecithodendrid trematodes, Acanthatrium alicatai Macy, 1940. A total of 22 specimens was collected from the small intestines of these two species of bats. This study documents two new host records and a new locality for this parasite. This also represents the second occurrence of the species since the original description >65 years ago. In addition, three nematodes (Seuratum cancellatum) and a coccidian (Eimeria antrozoi) were found in one (20%) of the A. pallidus. A summary of endoparasites of both species of bats is presented.

Sex ratios of Myotis velifer populations were studied during 2 hibernating seasons within and among 42 caves across a portion of its geographic range in Oklahoma and Kansas. The number of females to males was significantly different than the expected 1∶1 sex ratio in 25 of 44 visits to hibernacula. The percentage of females at the Selman Cave System, one of the largest hibernacula in Oklahoma, was always greater than the percentage of males throughout the season and in clusters of different sizes. Neither females nor males were any more likely to be found at the center than on the periphery of large clusters. The sex ratio of volant young at a maternity roost did not differ significantly from the expected 1∶1 sex ratio.

Ectoparasites of 13 species of molossid, mormoopid, and vespertilionid bats from the Trans-Pecos region of Texas were studied, as follows: Antrozous pallidus (LeConte), Corynorhinus townsendii (Cooper), Eptesicus fuscus (Palisot de Beauvois), Lasiurus cinereus (Palisot de Beauvois), Mormoops megalophylla (Peters), Myotis thysanodes G. S. Miller, Myotis velifer (J. A. Allen), Myotis volans (H. Allen), Myotis yumanensis (H. Allen), Nyctinomops femorosaccus (Merriam), Nyctinomops macrotis (Gray), Pipistrellus hesperus (H. Allen), and Tadarida brasiliensis (I. Geof. St.-Hilaire). The bats were netted, examined for ectoparasites and released. Ectoparasites recovered included three species of flea, three species of streblid, three species of nycteribiid, two species of cimicid, two species of tick, and 17 species of mite. New ectoparasite records are given for hosts in seven instances and for the Trans-Pecos region of Texas in three instances.

Wimsatt WA, editor. Biology of Bats Vol II. New York, NY: Academic Press. p 1-56. ROGERS GC. 1965. Aberrant coloration in Myotis velifer incautus. Southwestern Naturalist 10:311. SMITH HG. 1982. An albino little brown bat, Myotis lucifugus, from Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 96:217. TRAPIDO H, CROWE PE. 1942. Color abnormalities in three genera of northeastern cave bats. Journal of Mammalogy 23:303-305. WALLEY HD. 1971. A leucistic little brown bat (Myotis lucifugus). Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science 64:196-197. WALLEY HD. 1974. Albino little brown bat, Myotis lu

The mammary gland has long drawn the attention of the scientific community due to the limited knowledge of some fundamental aspects involved in the control of its function. Myotis velifer, a microchiropteran species, provides an interesting model to study some of the regulatory factors involved in the control of the mammary gland cycle. Having an asynchronous, monoestrous reproductive pattern, female M. velifer bats undergo drastic morphological changes of the breast during the reproductive cycle. Current research on non-chiropteran mammals indicates that serotonin (5-HT) plays a major role in the intraluminal volume homeostasis of the mammary gland during lactation; however, an analysis of both the expression and localization of the main components of the serotonergic system in the bat mammary gland is lacking. Thus, the objectives of the present study were: to describe the gross and histological anatomy of the mammary gland of M. velifer to establish the lactation period for this species; to analyze the distribution and expression of the main serotonergic components in the mammary tissues of these bats under the physiological conditions of lactation, involution and the resting phase; and to provide information on the involvement of 5-HT in the regulation of the physiological function of this organ. To assess the expression and localization of serotonergic components, multiple immunofluorescence, Western blot and HPLC methods were used. 5-HT and the enzyme that catalyzes its synthesis (TPH) were located in both myoepithelial and luminal epithelial cells, while the enzyme responsible for the catabolism of this neurohormone (MAO A) was found in luminal epithelial cells as well as in secreted products. We also found an increased expression of serotonergic components during lactation, indicating that elements of the serotonergic system may play an important role in lactation in this species of bat in a way similar to that of other mammal species.

Levels of nitrogen, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and iron were determined for suckling young of known-age, lactating Myotis velifer and Tadarida brasiliensis , and milk from T. brasiliensis nursing known-age young. From birth to weaning, relationships of both nutrient concentrations and nutrient accretion to age are similar for both species but differ for each nutrient and generally reach adult concentration by weaning. While total mass of body sodium and potassium reach adult levels in both species well before weaning, levels of other elements do not. Although comparable data are limited, element concentrations in suckling bats are similar to those for other suckling small mammals and nestling birds. Growth requirements for measured nutrients in these bats are lower than published values for rodents. Most mineral nutrients that were measured in milk for T. brasiliensis varied with stage of lactation and were comparable in concentration with milk of other mammals. Using daily accretion of nutrients and their concentrations in milk, we calculated the minimal mass of milk needed to meet growth requirements in suckling T brasiliensis . Among measured nutrients, calcium is the limiting nutritional factor that determines mass of milk needed by suckling young during postnatal growth.

The accumulation of oxidative damage to biomolecules, such as DNA, is known to induce alterations in the cell's mechanisms and structure that might lead to the aging process. DNA mismatch repair system (MMR) corrects base mismatches generated during DNA replication that have escaped the proofreading process. In addition, antioxidant enzymes can reduce reactive oxygen species effects in order to protect cells from oxidizing damage. In order to determine the importance of these associated factors during the aging process, in this study, levels of MMR proteins MSH2 and MLH1, as well as microsatellite markers, were compared in liver, lung, and brain of juvenile, adult, and old, both female and male, individuals from two species of wild bats: the short-lived Myotis velifer and the longer lived Desmodus rotundus. Catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase were also analyzed to determine if the antioxidant protection correlates negatively with DNA damage. Antioxidant activities were higher in the longer lived D. rotundus than in M. velifer. Furthermore, old M. velifer but not old D. rotundus bats had reduced MMR levels and increased microsatellite instability. Therefore, although our results correlate the reduced MMR efficiency, the deficient antioxidant activity, and the increase in DNA damage with the aging process, this is not always true for all living organisms.

The bat fly (Trichobius major) is a blood-feeding ectoparasite of the cave myotis (Myotis velifer). A recent mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) study examining population structure of T. major in the South Central United States detected a single haplotype from all individuals examined (N 5 48 from 12 different caves), representing one of only a few known examples of such widespread mtDNA uniformity. We examined nuclear genetic diversity using amplified fragment length polymorphism and detected high levels of nuclear genetic diversity in all populations sampled. Amplified fragment length polymorphism analyses indicated significant levels of gene flow among caves .700 km apart, suggesting the absence of mtDNA diversity in T. major is the result of a selective sweep, not a demographic event (i.e., a recent bottleneck). One mechanism by which mtDNA sweeps occur in arthropods is through bacterial parasites that manipulate host reproduction and mtDNA inheritance. We used PCR to test for the presence of all known reproductive parasites and detected a widespread infection (91.33% infection rate) of T. major with a novel Arsenophonus bacterium, as well as the infection of 2 individuals (1.16% infection rate) with a novel strain of Rickettsia. We discuss the implications for T. major phylogeography and the necessity of a bigenomic approach in arthropod population genetics.

The lipid matrix of the stratum corneum (SC), the outer layer of the epidermis of mammals and birds, constitutes the barrier to diffusion of water vapor through the skin. The lipids of the SC are structured in the intercellular spaces of the mammalian epidermis in ordered layers, called lamellae, which have been postulated to prevent water loss. Lipids in the mammalian SC are mainly cholesterol, free fatty acids and ceramides, the latter forming the structural support for the lamellae. However, knowledge on how the lipid composition of the SC alters cutaneous water loss (CWL) in mammals is rudimentary, and is largely derived from studies on laboratory animals and humans. We measured CWL of individuals of two species of syntopic bats, Tadarida brasiliensis and Myotis velifer. In the first study of its kind on wild mammals, we correlated CWL with the lipid composition of the SC, measured using thin layer chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography coupled with atmospheric pressure photoionization mass spectrometry. Surface-specific CWL was 20.6% higher in M. velifer than in T. brasiliensis, although differences were not significant. Compared with individuals of M. velifer, individuals of T. brasiliensis had more classes, and a higher proportion, of polar ceramides in the SC, a feature associated with lower CWL. Individuals of T. brasiliensis also had a class of non-polar ceramides that presumably spans the lamellae and gives more cohesiveness to the lipid matrix of the SC. We conclude that qualitative and quantitative modifications of the lipid composition of the SC contribute to regulate CWL of these two species of bats.

Previous experiments have established that the long-lived spermatozoa of hibernating bats are resistant to the acrosome reaction and fertilization in vitro conventional techniques. We tested the hypothesis that the membranes of these spermatozoa are more resistant to perturbation than those of other mammals. We exposed them to non-specific bilayer destabilizing agents and abrupt changes in incubation temperature and tested their response by observing their status (motility and viability) after a time interval compared with other mammals (golden hamster, rabbit, human). The results did not support the hypothesis. The inherent longevity of bat spermatozoa may thus be a function of some component other than unique resilience of their plasma membrane.

Altered structure, and hence function, of cellular macromolecules caused by oxidation can contribute to loss of physiological function with age. Here, we tested whether the lifespan of bats, which generally live far longer than predicted by their size, could be explained by reduced protein damage relative to short-lived mice. We show significantly lower protein oxidation (carbonylation) in Mexican free-tailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) relative to mice, and a trend for lower oxidation in samples from cave myotis bats (Myotis velifer) relative to mice. Both species of bat show in vivo and in vitro resistance to protein oxidation under conditions of acute oxidative stress. These bat species also show low levels of protein ubiquitination in total protein lysates along with reduced proteasome activity, suggesting diminished protein damage and removal in bats. Lastly, we show that bat-derived protein fractions are resistant to urea-induced protein unfolding relative to the level of unfolding detected in fractions from mice. Together, these data suggest that long lifespan in some bat species might be regulated by very efficient maintenance of protein homeostasis.—Salmon, A. B., Leonard, S., Masamsetti, V., Pierce, A., Podlutsky, A. J., Podlutskaya, N., Richardson, A., Austad, S. N., Chaudhuri, A. R. The long lifespan of two bat species is correlated with resistance to protein oxidation and enhanced protein homeostasis.

The two suborders of bats, Megachiroptera (megabats) and Microchiroptera (microbats), use different sensory modalities for perceiving their environment. Megabats are crepuscular and rely on a well-developed eyes and visual pathway, whereas microbats occupy a nocturnal niche and use acoustic orientation or echolocation more than vision as the major means of perceiving their environment. In view of the differences associated with their sensory systems, we decided to investigate the function and evolution of color vision (opsin genes) in these two suborders of bats. The middle/long wavelength (M/L) and short wavelength (S) opsin genes were sequenced from two frugivorous species of megabats, Haplonycteris fischeri and Pteropus dasymallus formosus, and one insectivorous species of microbat, Myotis velifer. Contrary to the situation in primates, where many nocturnal species have lost the functional S opsin gene, both crepuscular and strictly nocturnal species of bats that we examined have functional M/L and S opsin genes. Surprisingly, the S opsin in these bats may be sensitive to UV light, which is relatively more abundant at dawn and at dusk. The M/L opsin in these bats appears to be the L type, which is sensitive to red and may be helpful for identifying fruits among leaves or for other purposes. Most interestingly, H. fischeri has a recent duplication of the M/L opsin gene, representing to date the only known case of opsin gene duplication in non-primate mammals. Some of these observations are unexpected and may provide insights into the effect of nocturnal life on the evolution of opsin genes in mammals and the evolution of the life history traits of bats in general.

The hemoglobin of the lobe-lipped bat (Chalinolobus morio, Vespertilionidae) is composed of 45% HbI and 55% HbII. Both components show identical alpha-chains but differ at the following three positions of their beta-chains: beta I/beta II 21: Glu/Asp, 70: Ser/Ala, and 135: Gln/Leu. High performance liquid chromatography revealed pure alpha-chains and a mixture of only partly separated beta-chains. Based on this material, the primary structures of all three globin chains could be achieved by automatic Edman degradation of the whole chains and peptides obtained by trypsin hydrolysis. Compared to human hemoglobin, Chalinolobus shows 17 replacements in the alpha-chains and 24/22 in the beta-chains. A sequence comparison of the globin chains from the three vespertilionid bats Chalinolobus morio and Myotis velifer (Vespertilioninae) as well as Antrozous pallidus (Nyctophilinae) supports a close relationship of the former only for the beta-chains. Molecular modeling showed that the replacements involved in three alpha 1/beta 1 and one alpha 1/beta 2 subunit interface contacts do not cause any interruption. All phosphate binding sites and amino acid residues responsible for the Bohr effect are unchanged. Thus normal physiological properties should be expected for Chalinolobus morio hemoglobin.