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Institutions of vocational (vocational and technical) and higher education are a basic component of the educational process of Ukraine, which in turn is a potential for the development of the national economy and a factor for ensuring food and environmental security, forming the socio-economic foundations of the development of the territories of the state, and improving the material well-being of the population. In the new socio-economic conditions, the modern education management system is gradually acquiring features of public self-government and the state-public model of management, which should ensure Ukraine's transition to a post-information society. At the same time, the modern management system of professional (vocational and technical) education should ensure anticipatory innovative development, as well as create conditions for reproduction of the socio-cultural environment for the development, self-affirmation and self-realization of the individual throughout life. The fundamental factor of effective activity and sustainable development of professional (vocational and technical) education institutions in the conditions of the introduction of digitalization in the country is the strategic planning of the VET system. Regarding vocational education, strategic planning is studied as the definition of strategic directions of transforming the content of vocational education, development of strategy for designing innovative educational process in vocational education, substantiation and disclosure of information and network transformation of vocational education, systematic justification of innovations in vocational education technical education as the main mechanism for implementation the strategic goals of sectoral development. Within the available scientific research, such important areas as generalization of the current state of public regulation of the vocational education system as a basis for strategic planning of its development, updating the system of evaluating the effectiveness of vocational education, optimizing the structure of the vocational education network in general and regional levels, mechanisms for financing the system of vocational education etc. Solving these problems is possible only through using of strategic planning to bring innovative changes in the public management of VET institutions in the region to address the external efficiency of this educational sector, based on the priority of achieving socio-economic results rather than sectoral goals. The strategic planning of the development of the VET system at the national and regional levels is both an object and a mechanism of public management, in addition, it is institutionalized in the system of public management based on the formation of a complex of regulatory support for such management activities. Within the framework of the institutional approach, strategic planning should be considered as a comprehensive mechanism of public management of the development of the regional VET system on the basis of ensuring consistency between the demand for workers of a market nature and the trends of socio-economic development, as well as the needs of individual and corporate consumers of educational services.

The article reviews the documents of the archive of unregulated documentation of the Azov Volunteer Battalion for May-September 2014, recently recorded in the Central state archive of public associations of Ukraine. The aim of the publication is to determine the information potential of these documents, in particular their role in studying the history of the unit, the Ukrainian volunteer movement and the initial stage of hostilities in sector «M» of the Anti-terrorist operation in eastern Ukraine as a whole. The research methodology involves the application of the principles of historicism, the usage of studying whole historical sources and being objective. Descriptive method, methods of classifi cation and systematization as well as methods of analysis and synthesis have been used. The scientifi c novelty is conditioned by the high source value of the documents of the Azov Battalion Archive, which are currently completely unexplored within the framework of academic science; these documents are introduced into scientifi c circulation for the fi rst time. The prospects of further research are that by studying the contents of the documents of this archive we can reproduce in detail the history of the unit from its initial recruitment to transformation into a regiment of the same name, including formation, participation in hostilities, structure, personnel, internal organization reform and other features of the unit. In addition, the study of the content of these documents makes it possible to assess the impact of the unit’s activities on key military and political events in eastern Ukraine in 2014. The conclusions. Due to the study of documents, the important role of the Azov Battalion Archive in studying the history of the Azov Volunteer Battalion and its infl uence on the course of hostilities in eastern Ukraine was determined. The information potential of these archive is signifi cant, as it consists of documents containing unique information that is not available in any other sources, so these documents cover previously unexplored aspects not only of the history of a volunteer unit, but also key historical events in Ukraine in May-September 2014. References: 1. Azovska dokumentatsiia batalionnykh chasiv pryiniata do Tsentralnoho Derzharkhivu hromadskykh obiednan [The Azov documentation of battalion times has been accepted by the Central State Archives of Public Associations]. Azov. Retrieved from: https://azov.org.ua/azovska-dokymentacia-prujniata-do-cdago/ [in Ukrainian].2. Polk «Azov» poyasnil znachenie simvola na svoem shevrone [The Azov regiment explained the meaning of the symbol on its chevron]. National Correspondent. Retrieved from: https://nackor.org/en/znachenie-na-shevrone [in Russian].3. Pro zvilnennia politviazniv: Postanova Verkhovnoi Rady Ukrainy vid 24 liutoho 2014 r. № 786-VII (vtratyla chynnist 14.03.2014 r.) [On the release of political prisoners: The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine Resolution, dated February 24, 2014 № 786-VII (expired on March 14, 2014)]. Retrieved from: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/786-VII#Text [in Ukrainian].4. Кhomerikki, M. (Comp.) (2016). Shyrokynska operatsiia. Spohady uchasnykiv nastupu [Shyrokynska military operation. The memories shared by the fighters who participated in the offensive]. Kyiv–Мariupol–Mena: Dominanta. [in Ukrainian]. 5. Stasyuk, Yu. М. (2018) Ukrainski dobrovolchi formuvannia: stvorennia ta funktsionuvannia (2014–2015 rr.) [Ukrainian volunteer formations: their establishment and functioning (2014–2015)] (Candidate’s thesis). [in Ukrainian]. 6. Tysk na perlynu Azovskoho Rukhu – «Kozatskyi Dim» [Pressure on the pearl of the Azov Movement – the «Cossack House»]. National Correspondent. Retrieved from: https://nationalcorps.org/tysk-na-perlynu-azovsjkogho-rukhu-kozacjkyj-dim/ [in Ukrainian].7. Кravchenko, M. (Comp.) (2018). Vyzvolennia Mariupolia. Fotozbirka viiskovoi memuarystyky [Liberation of Mariupol. Photo collection of military memoirs]. Kyiv: Orienteer. [in Ukrainian].

The aim of the publication is to build a general scheme of the history of the Azov Volunteer Battalion, using the contents of the Azov Battalion Archive of unregulated documentation in general and internal battalion orders in particular. The research methodology involves the application of the principles of historicism, the usage of studying whole historical sources and being objective. Descriptive method, methods of classification and systematization as well as methods of analysis and synthesis have been used. The source base of the study is based on internal battalion orders and other materials of the archive of unregulated documentation of the Azov Battalion. The scientific novelty is conditioned by the high source value of the materials of the Azov Battalion Archive, which are currently completely unexplored within the academic science; these materials are introduced into scientific circulation for the first time. The conclusions of the study are the construction the general scheme of a history of the Azov Volunteer Battalion from the establishment of the unit on May 5, 2014 on the basis of the training and mobilization center "Cossack Legion" in the actually squatted building in the center of the Ukrainian capital to expand the unit to the regiment of September 17, 2014. Important milestones in the battalion's history are the redeployment of the unit from Kyiv to the Azov coast, participation in hostilities in the summer and autumn of 2014, including the liberation of Mariupol on June 13 and Mar’inka on August 4, and participation in the Ilovaysk operation in August and the defense of Mariupol in early September of that year.

Кравченко М.В. МЕХАНІЗМИ ВПРОВАДЖЕННЯ ІННОВАЦІЙНИХ ТЕХНОЛОГІЙ У ВИРОБНИЦТВО АГРАРНОГО СЕКТОРУ Мета . Обґрунтування теоретико-методичних засад та розробка практичних рекомендацій щодо формування й впровадження інноваційних технологій у виробництво підприємств аграрного сектору. Методика дослідження. В процесі дослідження використано загальнонаукові та спеціальні методи дослідження, зокрема методи: діалектики та наукової абстракції – при визначенні сутності інноваційної моделі розвитку аграрного сектору економіки; економіко-статистичний – при проведенні аналізу сучасного стану впровадження інноваційних технологій в аграрному секторі України; монографічний – використано при викладенні результатів дослідження. Результати дослідження. Висвітлено теоретичні засади формування інноваційних механізмів та їх впровадження в аграрний сектор. Сформовано теоретико-методологічні підходи щодо управління інноваційними технологіями у виробництві підприємств аграрного сектору. Обґрунтовано організаційно-економічні заходи щодо впровадження інноваційних технологій у виробництво підприємств аграрного сектору. Наукова новизна результатів дослідження. Удосконалено механізм впровадження інноваційних технологій в аграрне виробництво в умовах несприятливого інвестиційного середовища в Україні, що на відміну від існуючих механізмів передбачає інтеграцію державних інструментів підтримки та регулювання галузі та реалізацію державних й регіональних програм за рахунок коштів державного та місцевих бюджетів. У роботі запропоновано виділити виробничо-технологічні, організаційно-управлінські, селекційно генетичні, економічні та соціально-екологічні механізми інтеграції інновації в різні підсистеми аграрного сектору. Виробничо-технологічний механізм виділено пріоритетним у наданні державної підтримки розвитку тваринництва та переробки сільськогосподарської продукції. Практична значущість результатів дослідження. Наукові розробки дозволять сформувати в Україні ефективно функціонуючий агропромисловий комплекс з оптимальним фінансуванням на основі впровадження інноваційних технологій у виробництво підприємств аграрного сектору. Ключові слова: інноваційність, методичні підходи, аграрний сектор, переваги, технології, виробництво. Кравченко Н.В. МЕХАНИЗМЫ ВНЕДРЕНИЯ ИННОВАЦИОННЫХ ТЕХНОЛОГИЙ В ПРОИЗВОДСТВО АГРАРНОГО СЕКТОРА Цель. Обоснование теоретико-методических основ и разработка практических рекомендаций по формированию и внедрению инновационных технологий в производство предприятий аграрного сектора. Методика исследования. В процессе исследования использованы общенаучные и специальные методы исследования, в частности методы: диалектики и научной абстракции – при определении сущности инновационной модели развития аграрного сектора экономики; экономико-статистический – при проведении анализа современного состояния внедрения инновационных технологий в аграрном секторе Украины; монографический – использовано при изложении результатов исследования. Результаты исследования. Освещены теоретические основы формирования инновационных механизмов и их внедрение в аграрный сектор. Сформированы теоретико-методологические подходы к управлению инновационными технологиями в производстве предприятий аграрного сектора. Обоснованы организационно-экономические меры по внедрению инновационных технологий в производство предприятий аграрного сектора. Научная новизна результатов исследования. Усовершенствован механизм внедрения инновационных технологий в аграрное производство в условиях неблагоприятной инвестиционной среды в Украине, что в отличие от существующих механизмов предусматривает интеграцию государственных инструментов поддержки и регулирования отрасли и реализацию государственных и региональных программ за счет средств государственного и местных бюджетов. В работе предложено выделить производственно-технологические, организационно-управленческие, селекционно-генетические, экономические и социально-экологические механизмы интеграции инновации в различные подсистемы аграрного сектора. Производственно-технологический механизм выделено приоритетным в предоставлении государственной поддержки развития животноводства и переработки сельскохозяйственной продукции. Практическая значимость результатов исследования. Практическое значение исследования заключается в том, что научные разработки позволят сформировать в Украине эффективно функционирующий агропромышленный комплекс с оптимальным финансированием на основе внедрения инновационных технологий в производство предприятий аграрного сектора. Ключевые слова: инновационность, методические подходы, аграрный сектор, преимущества, технологии, производство. Kravchenko M.V. MECHANISMS FOR INTRODUCING INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES INTO THE PRODUCTION OF THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR Purpose. The aim of the article is substantiation of theoretical and methodological principles and development of practical recommendations for the formation and implementation of innovative technologies in the production of agricultural enterprises. Methodology of research. General-scientific and special research methods are used in the process of research, in particular methods: dialectics and scientific abstraction – in determining the essence of the innovative model of development of the agricultural sector of the economy; economic and statistical – when analysing the current state of implementation of innovative technologies in the agricultural sector of Ukraine; monographic – used in presenting the results of the study. Findings. Theoretical bases of formation of innovative mechanisms and their introduction in agrarian sector are covered. Theoretical and methodological approaches to the management of innovative technologies in the production of agricultural enterprises have been formed. Organizational and economic measures for the introduction of innovative technologies in the production of agricultural enterprises are substantiated. Originality. The mechanism of introduction of innovative technologies in agricultural production in the conditions of unfavourable investment environment in Ukraine is improved, which in contrast to the existing mechanisms provides integration of state instruments of support and regulation of the industry and implementation of state and regional programs at the expense of state and local budgets. In the paper it is offered to allocate production-technological, organizational-administrative, selection genetic, economic and social-ecological mechanisms of integration of innovation in various subsystems of agricultural sector. The production and technological mechanism is a priority in providing state support for the development of animal husbandry and processing of agricultural products. Practical value. Scientific developments will allow to form in Ukraine an effectively functioning agro-industrial complex with optimal financing based on the introduction of innovative technologies in the production of agricultural enterprises. Key words: innovation, methodical approaches, agricultural sector, advantages, technologies, production.

The palmitoyl acyltransferase ZDHHC7 belongs to the DHHC family responsible for the covalent attachment of palmitic acid (palmitoylation) to target proteins. Among synaptic proteins, its main targets are sex steroid receptors such as the estrogen receptors. When palmitoylated, these couple to membrane microdomains and elicit non-genomic rapid responses. Such coupling is found particularly in cortico-limbic brain areas which impact structure, function, and behavioral outcomes. Thus far, the functional role of ZDHHC7 has not been investigated in this context. To directly analyze an impact of ZDHHC7 on brain anatomy, microstructure, connectivity, function, and behavior, we generated a mutant mouse in which the Zdhhc7 gene is constitutively inactivated. Male and female Zdhhc7-/- mice were phenotypically compared with wild-type mice using behavioral tests, electrophysiology, protein analyses, and neuroimaging with diffusion tensor-based fiber tractography. Zdhhc7-deficiency impaired excitatory transmission, synaptic plasticity at hippocampal Schaffer collateral CA1 synapses, and hippocampal structural connectivity in both sexes in similar manners. Effects on both sexes but in different manners appeared in medial prefrontal cortical synaptic transmission and in hippocampal microstructures. Finally, Zdhhc7-deficiency affected anxiety-related behaviors exclusively in females. Our data demonstrated the importance of Zdhhc7 for assembling proper brain structure, function, and behavior on a system level in mice in a sex-related manner. Given the prominent role of sex-specificity also in humans and associated mental disorders, Zdhhc7-/- mice might provide a promising model for in-depth investigation of potentially underlying sex-specifically altered mechanisms.

In modern conditions, the impact of destabilizing factors of the external and internal environment is extremely acute, which requires special attention to the study of the problems of strengthening the economic security of the agricultural sector through territorial production systems. The mechanism of interaction between the government and agrarian business in the field of strengthening the economic security of the agricultural sector in foreign countries has been implemented for a long time and is constantly being improved. Socially significant problems, taking into account the growing needs of the population, remain a priority for the mechanism of public-private partnership and are addressed to strengthen the economic security of the agricultural sector. A distinctive feature of the interaction between government and business is how effectively state institutions and management of agrarian business can prevent internal and external threats and eliminate the harmful effects of certain negative components of the external and internal environment. The purpose of the study is to conduct a detailed scientific and practical substantiation of ways to strengthen the economic security of the agricultural sector with the help of territorial production systems in Ukraine and identify areas for improvement of this sector of the economy. Research methods: analysis and synthesis; analytical modeling; comparative analysis; systematization, generalization. Results. The current mechanism for implementing measures through territorial production systems to strengthen the economic security of the agricultural sector is not sufficiently adapted to the national socio-economic space, and therefore there are certain disparities in the implementation of economic development of the country and regions. Current trends in the transformation of socio-economic space confirm the insufficient level of influence of current measures to strengthen economic security of the agricultural sector, and the presence of characteristic asymmetry of socio-economic development of the country and regions requires greater focus on modernization of regulatory instruments, including ways to strengthen economic security -production systems. As a result of the study, further prospects for the implementation of alternative measures to strengthen the economic security of the agricultural sector through territorial production systems, found that each country is characterized by appropriate specifics in implementing measures to strengthen economic security of the agricultural sector, identified effective solutions to enhance implementation measures to strengthen the economic security of the agricultural sector through territorial production systems. The results of the study should be recommended by the legislative and executive authorities of Ukraine and its subjects in the development of state programs to support the strengthening of economic security of the agricultural sector through territorial production systems.

The purpose of the article is to study the problem areas of accounting and audit of labor remuneration and identify directions for their improvement. For a complete understanding of this process, the role of wages is substantiated and its definition is gi

While the transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel, a non-selective calcium-permeable cation channel with high Ca2+ permeability, mainly integrates physical and chemical stimuli for nociception, recent studies suggest that it has a role beyond a noxious thermal sensor. In fact, TRPV1 is presently being considered as a target for treating pathophysiological processes including pain, fear, and anxiety disorders. Although this ion channel has many potential roles, its underlying mechanism of action remains elusive. Here we show in mice that activation of TRPV1-, by the exogenous agonist capsaicin-, regulates synaptic activity in both glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission. Moreover, activation by the endogenous activator N-arachidonoyl taurine (NAT), induced similar effects as capsaicin. On the other hand, taurine, the decomposition product of NAT, strongly depressed the evoked glutamatergic synaptic transmission. In addition to these findings, we also show the immunohistochemical distribution of TRPV1 in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of mice, as such studies are currently less frequent in the PFC. Overall, these observations allow for a better understanding of how TRPV1 helps regulate excitatory and inhibitory synaptic activity in the PFC of mice.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a center for executive and cognitive functions. Although many studies have been carried out to elucidate the role of different subtypes of GABAergic neurons in other brain areas, their functional relevance in PFC is still not fully understood. Calretinin

It is well known that adult neurogenesis occurs in two distinct regions, the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone along the walls of the lateral ventricles. Until now, the contribution of these newly born neurons to behavior and cognition is still uncertain. The current study tested the functional impacts of diminished hippocampal neurogenesis on emotional and cognitive functions in transgenic Gfap-tk mice. Our results showed that anxiety-related behavior evaluated both in the elevated plus maze as well as in the open field, social interaction in the sociability test, and spatial working memory in the spontaneous alternation test were not affected. On the other hand, recognition and emotional memory in the object recognition test and contextual fear conditioning, and hippocampal long-term potentiation were impaired in transgenic mice. Furthermore, we evaluated whether environmental enrichment together with physical exercise could improve or even restore the level of adult neurogenesis, as well as the behavioral functions. Our results clearly demonstrated that environmental enrichment together with physical exercise successfully elevated the overall number of progenitor cells and young neurons in the dentate gyrus of transgenic mice. Furthermore, it led to a significant improvement in object recognition memory and contextual fear conditioning, and reverted impairments in hippocampal long-term potentiation. Thus, our results confirm the importance of adult neurogenesis for learning and memory processes and for hippocampal circuitry in general. Environmental enrichment and physical exercise beneficially influenced adult neurogenesis after it had been disrupted and most importantly recovered cognitive functions and long-term potentiation. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Enhanced NRG1‐ERBB4 signaling is a risk pathway in schizophrenia, and corresponding mouse models display several endophenotypes of the disease. Nonetheless, pathway‐directed treatment strategies with clinically applicable compounds have not been identified. Here, we applied a cell‐based assay using the split TEV technology to screen a library of clinically applicable compounds to identify modulators of NRG1‐ERBB4 signaling for repurposing. We recovered spironolactone, known as antagonist of corticosteroids, as an inhibitor of the ERBB4 receptor and tested it in pharmacological and biochemical assays to assess secondary compound actions. Transgenic mice overexpressing Nrg1 type III display cortical Erbb4 hyperphosphorylation, a condition observed in postmortem brains from schizophrenia patients. Spironolactone treatment reverted hyperphosphorylation of activated Erbb4 in these mice. In behavioral tests, spironolactone treatment of Nrg1 type III transgenic mice ameliorated schizophrenia‐relevant behavioral endophenotypes, such as reduced sensorimotor gating, hyperactivity, and impaired working memory. Moreover, spironolactone increases spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents in cortical slices supporting an ERBB4‐mediated mode‐of‐action. Our findings suggest that spironolactone, a clinically safe drug, provides an opportunity for new treatment options for schizophrenia.

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is a center for executive and cognitive functions. Although many studies have been carried out to elucidate the role of different subtypes of GABAergic neurons in other brain areas, their functional relevance in PFC is still not fully understood. Calretinin+-GABAergic neurons are heterogeneous in their morphology and intrinsic properties. Previous studies showed an involvement of CR+-GABAergic neurons in the disinhibition of the other GABAergic neurons in neocortex and hippocampus. Furthermore, the loss of CR+- and PV+-interneurons in human brain has been linked to the vulnerability of the interneurons and to the overall increase in the network excitability associated with mental diseases. In the present study, the intensity of CR+-neuropil was higher in layer II/III, whereas the intensity of PV+-neuropil was higher in deeper layers within the PFC. In addition, pronounced CR expression was detected in layer II and III of prelimbic and infralimbic cortex whereas they were less abundant in anterior cingulate cortex and motor cortex 2. Our results showed that bipolar CR+- neurons in layer V not only feedback inhibited multipolar CR+- and other interneurons in layer II/III, but the majority of bipolar CR+-neurons in layer II/III also provide long-range forward-inhibition to pyramidal neurons in deeper layers of PFC. Thus, given the importance of the neuronal network of PFC in central control of emotion and cognition and in the pathology of mental diseases, CR+-GABAergic neuron-mediated feed-forward and -backward modulation within PFC would differentially modulate the downstream limbic activity and subsequently shape the cognitive and emotional behavior.

It is well known that adult neurogenesis occurs in two distinct regions, the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone along the walls of the lateral ventricles. Until now, the contribution of these newly born neurons to behavior and cognition is still uncertain. The current study tested the functional impacts of diminished hippocampal neurogenesis on emotional and cognitive functions in transgenic Gfap-tk mice. Our results showed that anxiety-related behavior evaluated both in the elevated plus maze as well as in the open field, social interaction in the sociability test, and spatial working memory in the spontaneous alternation test were not affected. On the other hand, recognition and emotional memory in the object recognition test and contextual fear conditioning, and hippocampal long-term potentiation were impaired in transgenic mice. Furthermore, we evaluated whether environmental enrichment together with physical exercise could improve or even restore the level of adult neurogenesis, as well as the behavioral functions. Our results clearly demonstrated that environmental enrichment together with physical exercise successfully elevated the overall number of progenitor cells and young neurons in the dentate gyrus of transgenic mice. Furthermore, it led to a significant improvement in object recognition memory and contextual fear conditioning, and reverted impairments in hippocampal long-term potentiation. Thus, our results confirm the importance of adult neurogenesis for learning and memory processes and for hippocampal circuitry in general. Environmental enrichment and physical exercise beneficially influenced adult neurogenesis after it had been disrupted and most importantly recovered cognitive functions and long-term potentiation. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Potassium channels of the Kv7 family that mediate the non-inactivating M current regulate the excitability of many types of neurons in the central nervous system, including some in the hippocampus. We report here that individual interneurons from newborn rat hippocampi in long-term culture strongly express messenger RNA specific for Kv7.2 and Kv7.3 and, to a lesser extent, Kv7.5 channel subunits but not for the Kv7.4 subunit. An M-like current was electrophysiologically identified in two subpopulations of interneurons distinct in their spiking behaviour (regular or fast spiking). The M-channel enhancer retigabine reduced interneuronal excitability by constraining the number of action potentials generated during imposed depolarisations; this effect was inhibited by specific the M-channel blocking drugs. In paired synaptically connected interneuron-target cell recordings, anatomically localised applications of retigabine indicated that M channels were present in both the interneuron soma and its GABA-ergic inhibitory axon. We conclude that M-channel subunits and functional M channels are broadly expressed in hippocampal interneurons and their axons and are potentially capable of strongly regulating their firing properties.

The ability to monitor changes in membrane potential is a useful tool for studying neuronal function, but there are only limited options available at present. Here, we have investigated the potential of a commercially available FLIPR membrane potential (FMP) dye, developed originally for high throughput screening using a plate reader, for imaging the membrane potential of cultured cells using an epifluorescence-based single cell imaging system. We found that the properties of the FMP dye make it highly suitable for such imaging since 1) its fluorescence displayed a high signal-to-noise ratio, 2) robust signals meant only minimal exposure times of around 5 ms were necessary, and 3) bidirectional changes in fluorescence were detectable resulting from hyper- or depolarising conditions, reaching equilibrium with a time constant of 4-8 s. Measurements were possible independently of whether membrane potential changes were induced by voltage clamping, or manipulating the ionic distribution of either Na(+) or K(+). Since FMP behaves as a charged molecule which accumulates in the cytosol, equations based on the Boltzmann distribution were developed determining that the apparent charge of FMP which represents a measure of the voltage sensitivity of the dye, is between -0.62 and -0.72. Finally, we demonstrated that FMP is suitable for use in a variety of neuronal cell types and detects membrane potential changes arising from spontaneous firing of action potentials and through stimulation with a variety of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Anxiety disorders are thought to reflect deficits in the regulation of fear memories. While the amygdala has long been considered a site of storage of fear memories, newer findings suggest that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is essential in the regulation of amygdala-dependent memories and fear expression. Here, activation of the prelimbic cortex (PrL) enhances the expression of fear, while an elevated activity in the infralimbic cortex (IL) enhances fear extinction. Despite the presence of these facts, we still know very little about the synaptic interconnectivity within the PFC. The aim of the present study was to investigate the inhibitory circuits between prelimbic and IL using morphological and electrophysiological methods. Our immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the distribution of PV+- and NPY+-GABAergic neurons was strikingly different within the PFC. In addition, we provided the first experimental evidence that the pyramidal neurons in the PrL received a direct inhibitory input mediated by bipolar NPY+-GABAergic projection neurons in the IL. Deletion of the anxiety-related neuroligin 2 gene caused a decrease of this direct synaptic inhibition that originated from the IL. Thus, our data suggested that activation of the IL might not only directly activate the corresponding downstream anxiolytic pathway, but also suppress the PrL-related anxiogenic pathway and thus could differentially bias the regulation of fear expression and extinction.