Search

Parasitism is a strong selective pressure, and its study is crucial for predicting the persistence of host species. Mantled howler monkeys are infected by the larvae of the bot fly Cuterebra baeri. This parasitosis produces myiasis and may have negative impacts on host health, although systematic information on the dynamics of this host-parasite relationship is very limited. Currently, all available information on infection patterns of C. baeri comes from a single mantled howler monkey population (Barro Colorado Island, Panama). Therefore, in this study we describe temporal variation in infection patterns for a newly mantled howler monkey population and analyze the relationship between climate and infection likelihood. We assessed the presence of C. baeri nodules in 17 adult individuals in Los Tuxtlas for 10 months through direct observation and compiled data on ambient temperature and rainfall. Most subjects had nodules during the study and there were no differences between sexes in the number of nodules. Nodules were usually located in the neck. Prevalence and abundance of nodules peaked thrice during the study (February, April, and September), a pattern that was very similar to that of parasitism intensity (February, April, and August). Incidence closely tracked these peaks, increasing before and decreasing after them. The likelihood of nodule appearance increased when both mean and minimum temperature decreased in the 24-21 prior days to nodule appearance. It also increased with decreased rainfall in the 5-2 prior days to nodule appearance. Although only three of the eight analyzed climate variables had a significant effect on parasitosis, these results suggest that climate may affect pupal development and the access of larvae to hosts. Besides contributing data on C. baeri parasitism for a new mantled howler monkey population, our study provides novel information on the influence of environmental factors on the dynamics of host-parasite systems., (© 2024 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Two of 19 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in northern Spain were infested with Cephenemyia stimulator and one individual with Oestrus ovis. Three larvae of O. ovis were recovered from the nasopharynx of an adult female deer examined in February 2017, during the hunting season in the province of Burgos. The larvae were identified by morphology, and DNA sequencing from cytochrome oxidase subunit I and 28S rDNA confirmed the identification of both species of larvae. The possibility of O. ovis parasitizing roe deer should be considered in the diagnosis of nasal bots in cervids., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2024.)

The New World screwworm, Cochliomyia hominivorax Coquerel (Diptera: Calliphoridae), was officially eliminated from Costa Rica in 2000, but it was reintroduced in 2023. A myiasis by C. hominivorax in a 71-year-old man with a 4-month history of foot hyperkeratosis and interdigital ulcers is reported. The myiasis was detected before sampling for bacterial culture. Approximately 160 first- and second-instar larvae were recovered and identified as C. hominivorax. Morphological identification was based mainly on characteristics of the cephalopharyngeal skeleton, spiracles, and pigmented dorsal tracheal trunks. Sequencing of a cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene fragment confirmed the identity. The ulcers healed after extraction of the larvae and ciprofloxacin treatment of a concurrent Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Given the reintroduction of C. hominivorax in Costa Rica and the risk of northward expansion, this report highlights its impact on public health and calls for awareness among clinicians and healthcare practitioners.

Introduction: Hypodermosis is a subcutaneous infestation in cattle that is caused by larvae of Hypoderma spp. and it is an economically important disease in the cattle industry. This study aimed to find the prevalence rate of hypodermosis and identify variations in the COX1 gene among isolates present in Sulaymaniyah, in the Kurdistan region of Iraq., Methodology: The study was conducted in a Sulaymaniyah slaughterhouse from March to July 2021. The carcasses of 867 cattle were carefully checked before and after skinning them to record the presence of boils containing the larvae of Hypoderma spp. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using TaqI enzyme, and sequencing of the COX1 gene were used for diagnosis and molecular characterization of Hypoderma spp., Results: The rate of infestation with Hypoderma bovis was 1.61% and the highest rate (3.57%) was detected in April. The disease was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in local breeds at 2.79%. PCR-RFLP confirmed that all recorded species were H. bovis. The result was further confirmed by Sanger sequencing of the COX1 gene of the isolated species. Comparison of the sequences of the conserved COX1 gene of the parasite led to identification of six different haplotypes in the research area. Two of the haplotypes were previously recorded internationally, while four new haplotypes associated with four novel mutations were recorded for the first time in the study region., Conclusions: Based on these results we can conclude that H. bovis is a widespread species in the research region., Competing Interests: No Conflict of Interest is declared, (Copyright (c) 2024 Aram A Mohammed, Taib A Hama Soor, Mardin O Abdulqadir.)

Despite being endemic in Iraq, no reports have been published in the past 10 years to update the molecular epidemiology of the Old World screwworm fly (OWSF), Chrysomya bezziana, in this country. In the present study, 130 sheep from 10 Iraqi governorates were found infected with C. bezziana larvae, whose identities were PCR-confirmed based on the cytochrome b (Cytb) gene, and 23 isolates from various tested governorates were successfully sequenced. Although most isolates (n = 20) belonged to the common haplotype circulating in Iraq, two new haplotypes were detected. Significant changes in OWSF epidemiology in Iraq were also suggested, since infestations were detected, for the first time, in Nineveh governorate. Isolates of the present study were combined to those previously published from Iraq and worldwide, collected after searching the GenBank, and various genetic and population structure analyses were conducted. These isolates displayed a great statistically significant value when tested for the purifying (negative) selection, suggesting the limited occurrence of genetic variations, which was evidenced by the high sequence conservation (C = 0.937) value detected. A few isolates from Africa were revealed during our search, and clustered in a separate lineage other than that of the Asian isolates. The latter displayed different genetic variation patterns when compared. For example, isolates from geographically separate regions, e.g., the Gulf Arab countries and South-Eastern Asia had marked genetic differences. On the other hand, isolates from regions with close geographic proximity (the Gulf Arab countries and Iran) had limited genetic subdivision. This is not the case when comparing isolates from 10 islands in the Indonesian Archipelago. Populations from Sumatra and Sumba were isolated and displayed high genetic variations toward the other populations. On the contrary, populations from Sulawesi, Lombok and Sumbawa displayed limited genetic variations. This is particularly important, since it can help detecting the dynamics of establishing the sterile insect technique over various regions as an effective control strategy against the OWSFs., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Nasopharyngeal myiasis caused by the camel nasal bot, Cephalopina titillator, is very common in old world camelids and is usually found at necropsy or during meat inspection. Herein we report massive infection with C. titillator in a 9 years old female one-humped camel slaughtered on February 18, 2024 in the village of Kizil Uy, Nukus District, Republic of Karakalpakstan, northwestern Uzbekistan. A total of 69 larvae: 20 first stage larva (28.9%), 31  second stage larva (44.9%), and 18 third stage larva (26.0%) were detected in the nasal passages and pharynx of the camel. Morphological and morphometrical characters of all larval stages are illustrated and detailed in this article. To our knowledge this is the first record of camel nasal bot infestation in Uzbekistan. Future epidemiological studies are needed to shed light on the prevalence, seasonal fluctuation, clinical impact and economic burden of nasopharyngeal myiasis in dromedary camels of the country., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Oestrus ovis larvae are obligate parasites of vertebrates and cause cavitary myiasis (oestrosis) in sheep and goats. It is also reported as a zoonosis causing ophthalmomyiasis and nasopharyngeal myiasis. Despite being relatively common in Brazil, epidemiological studies on O. ovis are scarce. Considering that the infestation is influenced by the climate and biomes of the studied region, we aimed to investigate the seasonal prevalence of O. ovis among slaughtered sheep in the northern region of the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. The heads of sheep (n=697) slaughtered at a slaughterhouse in the municipality of Terra Nova do Norte (November 2011 to November 2013) were collected to count, catalog, and identify the larvae found in the upper respiratory tract. Overall, 45.77% (319/697) of the animals were infested with 2,412 recovered larvae, 96.89% (2,337/2,412) of which were identified at the species level as O. ovis. Seasonal variations in prevalence ranged from 41% (spring) to 56% (summer); however, no correlation was observed between prevalence and season, mean humidity, or temperature. In conclusion, parasitism by O. ovis in sheep in the studied area, occurs year-round, considering the occurrence of larvae (L1, L2, and L3) throughout the year, probably because of the area's environmental conditions.

Background: Human myiasis is a parasitic dipteran fly infestation that infects humans and vertebrates worldwide. However, the disease is endemic in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. In Sub-Saharan Africa, it is under-reported and therefore its prevalence is unknown. This systematic review aims to elucidate the prevalence of human myiasis, factors that influence the infection, and myiasis-causing fly species in SSA. The review also dwelled on the common myiasis types and treatment methods of human myiasis., Methods: Here, we collect cases of human myiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa based on literature retrieved from PubMed, Google Scholar and Science Direct from 1959 to 2022. A total of 75 articles and 157 cases were included in the study. The recommendations of PRISMA 2020 were used for the realization of this systematic review., Results: In total, 157 cases of human myiasis in SSA were reviewed. Eleven fly species (Cordylobia anthropophaga, Cordylobia rodhaini, Dermatobia hominis, Lucilia cuprina, Lucilia sericata, Oestrus ovis, Sarcophaga spp., Sarcophaga nodosa, Chrysomya megacephala, Chrysomya chloropyga and Clogmia albipuntum) were found to cause human myiasis in SSA. Cordylobia anthropophaga was the most prevalent myiasis-causing species of the reported cases (n = 104, 66.2%). More than half of the reported cases were from travelers returning from SSA (n = 122, 77.7%). Cutaneous myiasis was the most common clinical presentation of the disease (n = 86, 54.7%). Females were more infected (n = 78, 49.6%) than males, and there was a higher infestation in adults than young children., Conclusion: The findings of this study reveals that international travelers to Sub-Saharan Africa were mostly infested therefore, we recommend that both international travelers and natives of SSA be enlightened by public health officers about the disease and its risk factors at entry points in SSA and the community level respectively. Clinicians in Sub-Saharan Africa often misdiagnose the disease and most of them lack the expertise to properly identify larvae, so we recommend the extensive use of molecular identification methods instead., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Jallow et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

This study was conducted to clarify the host specificity and the geographical distribution of Gasterophilus species (Diptera, Oestridae) in the Serengeti ecosystem. A total of 317 larvae were recovered from two common zebras (Equus quagga, formerly Equus burchellii) in Maswa Game Reserve, and 58 larvae were recovered from an African lion (Panthera leo) in the Serengeti National Park. The study emphasizes the rare occurrence of Gasterophilus sp. in lions, shedding light on the broader life cycle and physiological implications for hosts. Genetic analysis of cox2 genes from Gasterophilus species, sourced from a single geographic location, reveals significant genetic distinctions and host specificity. This study reports the first case of G. intestinalis infestation in an African lion in the Serengeti ecosystem, extending its known range from zebras and other equids, and highlighting ecological and veterinary implications. This unusual prey-predator transmission highlights the value of molecular taxonomic tools in clarifying host-parasite dynamics and guiding targeted conservation strategies., (© B. Abdieli Ndossi et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2024.)

Eastern box turtles ( Terrapene carolina carolina ) face a variety of anthropogenic, infectious, and environmental threats and have been affected by high morbidity and mortality disease events. Wellness parameters in free-ranging eastern box turtles with a high prevalence of myiasis on Cape Cod, MA, were documented to identify epidemiologic trends or associations with several health parameters. There were 109 samples collected from 59 individual box turtles over the course of 4 mon. Six turtles died over the course of this study. Fly larvae infestations varied in severity and were observed in the cutaneous and subcutaneous tissue (n = 18; 30.5%). Animals with myiasis had fewer plastron abnormalities than those without ( P = 0.034), and all turtles found in bogs had evidence of fly larvae infections ( P < 0.0001). Individuals with myiasis also had lower body condition index ( P = 0.014), lower total white blood cells ( P = 0.031), lower PCV ( P < 0.0001), lower total solids ( P < 0.0001), higher erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( P < 0.0001), lower calcium ( P = 0.018), and lower phosphorus ( P = 0.017). Three turtles tested positive for terrapene herpesvirus 1, but presence was not associated with myiasis. Heavy metal analysis revealed no significant differences between turtles with and without myiasis. This study examined the health of a population of eastern box turtles, and continued health assessments will be beneficial in determining the impact of myiasis on future conservation plans.

A total of 35 male roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Lugo province (north-western Spain) were examined for pedicle myiasis between 2020 and 2022. All these animals had died by different causes and were examined or preserved just after their death to avoid post-mortem infestations. After external and internal head inspection, five animals were diagnosed with severe myiasis at the basis of the antlers (14.29%; 95% confidence interval = 5.38-31.04). All the affected bucks presented a cutaneous wound (1.5-15 cm in diameter) around the pedicles with extensive tissue destruction, exposition of frontal and parietal bones, and massive infestation by dipteran larvae (2-12 mm long). Four of five roe deer showed whitish egg clusters adhered to the basis of the antlers. Moreover, in one animal, six larvae had penetrated the cranial cavity, and in two of them larvae were also found in the nasopharyngeal cavity. All the cases were recorded in summer (May-August). Morphological identification and subsequent molecular confirmation revealed that all animals were infested by different larval stages of Lucilia caesar (Diptera: Calliphoridae). This study represents the first report of pedicle myiasis in Spain. Since this disease is reported sporadically, the detection of five cases in a short period of time suggests an increase in the incidence of this myiasis., (© 2023 The Authors. Medical and Veterinary Entomology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Royal Entomological Society.)

Background: Lucilia cuprina and L. sericata (family Calliphoridae) are globally significant ectoparasites of sheep. Current literature suggests that only one of these blowfly subspecies, L. cuprina dorsalis, is a primary parasite causing myiasis (flystrike) in sheep in Australia. These species and subspecies are difficult to distinguish using morphological features. Hence, being able to accurately identify blowflies is critical for diagnosis and for understanding their relationships with their hosts and environment., Methods: In this study, adult blowflies (5 pools of 17 flies; n = 85) were collected from five locations in different states [New South Wales (NSW), Queensland (QLD), Tasmania (TAS), Victoria (VIC) and Western Australia (WA)] of Australia and their mitochondrial (mt) genomes were assembled., Results: Each mt genome assembled was ~ 15 kb in size and encoded 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs, 22 transfer RNAs and a control region. The Lucilia species mt genomes were conserved in structure, and the genes retained the same order and direction. The overall nucleotide composition was heavily biased towards As and Ts-77.7% of the whole genomes. Pairwise nucleotide diversity suggested divergence between Lucilia cuprina cuprina, L. c. dorsalis and L. sericata. Comparative analyses of these mt genomes with published data demonstrated that the blowflies collected from sheep farm in TAS clustered within a clade with L. sericata. The flies collected from an urban location in QLD were more closely related to L. sericata and represented the subspecies L. c. cuprina, whereas the flies collected from sheep farms in NSW, VIC and WA represented the subspecies L. c. dorsalis., Conclusions: Phylogenetic analyses of the mt genomes representing Lucilia from the five geographic locations in Australia supported the previously demonstrated paraphyly of L. cuprina with respect to L. sericata and revealed that L. c. cuprina is distinct from L. c. dorsalis and that L. c. cuprina is more closely related to L. sericata than L. c. dorsalis. The mt genomes reported here provide an important molecular resource to develop tools for species- and subspecies-level identification of Lucilia from different geographical regions across Australia., (© 2023. BioMed Central Ltd., part of Springer Nature.)

Oestrus ovis is an obligate parasite that causes myiasis in domestic ruminants, being commonly found in the Mediterranean area. From 2009 to 2019 a total of 3476 heads of culling sheep and goats from the Mediterranean coast of Spain were examined for the presence of O. ovis. The total prevalence was 56.3%, significantly higher in sheep than in goats (61.2% and 43%, respectively). Differences were found in the mean annual prevalence, with the highest value being registered in 2018 (61.7%) and the lowest in 2012 (50.3%). Autumn, for sheep, and winter, for goats, were the seasons with the highest number of infested specimens. Temperature, but not rainfall, was found to be associated with prevalence (p < 0.05). Most L1 were found in the anatomic region I (septum, meatus, and ventral conchae), while L2 and L3 were mainly located in regions II (nasopharynx, ethmoid labyrinth, and dorsal conchae), and III (sinuses). The overall intensity was 12.8 larvae per head, significantly higher in sheep (13.3) than in goats (3.5). Our results confirm the high prevalence of O. ovis in sheep and goats in this geographic area over the last decade, with the trend increasing in recent years in association with higher mean temperatures., (© 2023 Royal Entomological Society.)

The genus Gasterophilus (Diptera, Gastrophilidae) is an obligate parasite of the equine family that causes widespread myiasis in desert steppe. Based on four common naturally excreted Gasterophilus larvae collected systematically in the Karamaili Ungulate Nature Reserve from March to September 2021, this paper studies the population dynamics and ontogenetic laws of horse flies, and discuss the coexistence pattern and population dynamics prediction of horse flies. The results showed that the Gasterophilus larvae had obvious concentrated development period, and the time of population peaks was different, the earliest was G. nigricornis (late March), followed by G. pecorum-Ⅰ (mid-April), G. nasalis (late April), G. intestinalis (early May), G. pecorum-Ⅱ (mid-August). The order of development threshold temperature "C nigricornis < C pecorum-Ⅰ ≤ C pecorum -Ⅱ < C nasalis < C intestinalis " is consistent with the peak order of different larval populations. The life history survival rate (L) was as follows: L nigricornis (83.97%) ≥ L intestinalis (81.25%) > L nasalis (72.42%) ≥ L pecorum-Ⅱ (71.65%) > L pecorum-Ⅰ (39.23%). This study combined indoor experiments and field surveys revealed the development of horse fly populations with different life strategies in desert grasslands. Based on the different development threshold temperatures of several horse flies, the staggered population dynamics of Gasterophilus form continuous infection stress on the host. In addition, G. pecorum exhibited a univoltine bimodal population distribution in this area and led to two high-intensity host infections, which is one of the important reasons why it has become the dominant species of myiasis in desert steppe., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Myiasis, or the infestation of live humans and vertebrate animals by dipterous larvae, is a health issue worldwide. The economic impact and potential threat to animal health and wellbeing of this disease under the animal husbandry sector is considerable. Sheep are a highly vulnerable livestock category exposed to myiasis (sheep strike), due to several unique predisposing factors that attract flies. The successful mitigation of this disease relies on a thorough understanding of fly population dynamics associated with the change in weather patterns and the evaluation of this disease through different branches of science such as chemistry, molecular biology, and microbiology. The present review provides a summary of the existing knowledge of strike in sheep, discussed in relation to the application of volatile organic compounds, metagenomics, and molecular biology, and their use regarding implementing fly control strategies such as traps, and to increase the resilience of sheep to this disease through improving their health and wellbeing., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Ian Dadour reports administrative support was provided by Source Certain. Ian Dadour reports a relationship with Source Certain that includes: employment. Ian Dadour has patent pending to None. No conflicts of Interest, (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Rainfall incidence as a risk factor for umbilical myiasis by Cochliomyia hominivorax in newborn beef cattle and the preventive and curative efficacies of injectable and topical products against its larvae were evaluated. The prevalence of navel myiasis did not differ between sex, however, it did differ between seasons of the year, independent of animal sex, with it being higher in the rainy season than in the dry season for both sexes (males 64.6%, females 62.1%). During the rainy season, rains occurred intermittently and the number of rainy days in a week had a direct influence on prevalence, with an increase (≥87%) in the number of calves with navel myiasis caused by C. hominivorax. When it rained intermittently for four, five and six days in a week during the rainy season, calves had ≈12, 24 and 11 times greater chances, respectively, of having navel myiasis compared to a week without rain during the rainy season. The injectable products did not reach preventive efficacies higher than 35%, while all treatments of topic products reached 100% preventive efficacy at 10 days post-treatment. Only the formulations with 30% dichlorfenthion and 0.32% fipronil achieved 100% curative efficacy. The results reinforce the need for intensified inspection and healing of the umbilicus during the rainy season, mainly during rainier weeks. Furthermore, topical formulations may be a better alternative as a preventive treatment than avermectin formulations. However, the curative efficacy of the topical product containing dichlorvos did not demonstrate a relationship with preventive efficacy for newborn calves., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article., (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: In camels, nasopharyngeal myiasis is caused by the larvae of Cephalopina titillator, which parasitize the tissues of nasal and paranasal sinuses, pharynx, and larynx. C. titillator infestation adversely affects the health of camels and decreases milk and meat production and even death. However, the C. titillator infestation in Bactrian camels has not been widely studied., Methods: The present study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors of C. titillator in Bactrian camels of northwestern Xinjiang. Suspected larvae recovered from infested camels were evaluated for C. titillator by microscopy and polymerase chain reaction. Nucleotide sequences of the partial mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COX1) and cytochrome b (CYTB) genes from the C. titillator of camels were aligned from the NCBI database. Furthermore, the gross and histopathological alterations associated with C. titillator infestation were evaluated via pathological examination., Results: Of 1263 camels examined 685 (54.2%) camels were infested with suspected C. titillator larvae. Different larval stages were topically detected in the nasal passages and pharynx of the camel heads. Microscopy analysis of the pharyngeal mucosa tissue revealed necrotic tissue debris and some inflammatory cells. Molecular detection of the larval COX1 and CYTB genes indicated that pathogen collected in Bactrian camels was C. titillator. The epidemiological study demonstrated that the prevalence rate of C.titillator infestation was significantly higher in camels of Bestierek Town Pasture (67.2%) and Karamagai Town Pasture (63.6%) compared to Kitagel Town Pasture (38.7%) and Qibal Town Pasture (35.8%) (P < 0.05). No significant difference was observed between the prevalence rates in male (52.6%) and female (54.6%) camels (P > 0.05). The prevalence was higher in warm (64.2%) than that in cold (48.4%) seasons (P < 0.001). The prevalence in camels with non-nomadic method (67.2%) was significantly higher than in animals with nomadic method (47.5%) (P < 0.001). The prevalence of C.titillator infestation was significantly higher in animals of aged 5-10 (60.1%) and aged > 10 (61.1%) years old compared to those of aged < 5 (31.7%) years old camels (P < 0.001)., Conclusion: Our results confirm that there is a high prevalence of C. titillator in Bactrian camels from Xinjiang, closely related to age, season, pasture environment, and husbandry methods. Developing prevention, diagnosis, and control programs to prevent transmission is necessary., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Introduction: Oral myiasis is a rare condition caused by Dipteran larvae that feed on living or dead tissues, ingested food or body fluids. It affects immunocompromised individuals with low socioeconomic status or those unable to maintain proper hygiene. Cases of oral myiasis are scarce but debilitating in children. We conducted a systematic review to understand the nature of disease, its causative factors, treatment and ways to prevent the occurrence of this condition among children., Methodology: The review was carried out in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis guidelines. A systematic electronic literature search was conducted on major databases using keywords in combination with Boolean Operators. Manuscripts discussing cases of oral myiasis in paediatric patients were included in the review., Results: The exhaustive literature search and evaluation of full texts revealed 32 studies that fulfilled the inclusion criteria. A total of 68 cases of oral myiasis were reported from 2 to 16 years of children, majorly involving gingiva of maxillary anterior region and palate., Conclusion: The dreadful condition of myiasis can be prevented by decreasing the number of flies, maintenance of good hygiene and by educating the susceptible population. Affected children must be managed by following proper treatment regimens., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest Author has no interests to declare., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Botflies (Diptera:Oestridae) are a diverse group of insect parasites that affect various vertebrate species. There are previous reports of myiasis affecting wild primates in Central and South America; however, information about botfly parasitism in Peruvian primates is scarce. We present data from two Cebidae primate specimens: a rescued large-headed capuchin monkey (Sapajus macrocephalus) housed at Taricaya Rescue Center, in Tambopata, Peru, and a free-ranging white-fronted capuchin monkey (Cebus albifrons aequatorialis) inhabiting Cerros de Amotape National Park. The first specimen had a larva identified as Dermatobia hominis, whereas Cuterebra baeri larvae infested the second. In both cases we initially identified the parasite species through their morphologic features before confirming the identification with genetic analysis through the cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 mitochondrial gene sequencing of the larvae. Further field studies on the primate-parasite dynamics are needed to understand the impact of botfly myiasis on primate populations., (© Wildlife Disease Association 2022.)

Wohlfahrtia magnifica (Diptera: Sarcophagidae) is an obligate myiasis-causing fly of livestock that is widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean basin. A total of 73 683 sheep from 122 flocks in Albacete Province (southeastern [SE] Spain) were examined to detect active traumatic myiasis. The influence of several individual and flock factors on the prevalence was also assessed. The overall flock prevalence of traumatic myiasis was 95.9%, with an individual prevalence of 7.1%. Wohlfahrtia magnifica was identified in all of the positive animals except one that was infested by Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Adults of both genders showed a higher risk of infestation than juveniles, whereas males of all ages displayed an increased risk of infestation than females of all ages; the existence of a lambing building on the farm, poor husbandry facilities and the location area were also identified as risk factors. Prevalence was highest in the summer, and the fly season lasted from March to November. Genitalia were the main location of infestation in males (94.4%) and females (76.3%). Our results reveal that traumatic myiasis by W. magnifica is widespread in southeastern Spain, hence preventive measures minimizing the attractiveness of sheep to gravid flies are necessary to avoid health and welfare problems and significant production losses in sheep flocks., (© 2021 The Authors. Medical and Veterinary Entomology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Royal Entomological Society.)

Background: Myiasis is an emerging disease caused by tissue invasion of dipteran larvae. In Uruguay, Cochliomyia hominivorax and Dermatobia hominis are the most frequent species. This study aimed to describe the epidemiological and clinical characteristics and the follow-up of children < 15 years hospitalized for myiasis in a reference center in Uruguay between 2010 and 2019., Methods: We conducted a descriptive and retrospective study by reviewing medical records. We analyzed the following variables: age, sex, comorbidities, origin, the month at admission, clinical manifestations, other parasitoses, treatments, complications, and larva species identified., Results: We found 63 hospitalized children: median age of 7 years (1 month-14 years), 68% of females. We detected risk comorbidities for myiasis (33%), of which chronic malnutrition was the most frequent (n = 6); 84% were from the south of the country; 76% were hospitalized during the summer. Superficial and multiple cutaneous involvements were found in 86%: of the scalp 50, furunculoid type 51, secondary to C. hominivorax 98.4%, and to D. hominis in 1.6%. As treatments, larval extraction was detected in all of them, surgical in 22%. Asphaltic products for parasites were applied in 94%, ether in 49. Antimicrobials were prescribed in 95%; cephradine and ivermectin were the most frequent. About 51% presented infectious complications, impetigo was found in 29, cellulitis in 2, and abscess in 1., Conclusions: Myiasis predominantly affected healthy schoolchildren during the summer months and was frequently associated with ectoparasites. Superficial infestation of the furuncle-like scalp by C. hominivorax was the most frequent form. Infectious complications motivated hospitalizations.

Goat Warble Fly Infestation (GWFI) is also known as subcutaneous myiasis caused by Przhevalskiana silenus (Diptera: Oestridae). It is widely distributed in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. In goats, WFI is usually detected through conventional procedure which underestimated the infestation. The current study was designed to determine the serodiagonsis of GWFI (through IDEXX Hypodermosis serum antibody test) and also aimed to investigate its seroepizootiological profile in Pothwar region, Pakistan from 2013-14. The results showed that average seropositivity (ELISA kit) of GWFI was 18.5% whereas, it was 11% by using conventional procedure (Palpation method) depicting a significant difference (p<0.05). Higher seropositivity (30.8%) was observed in Jhelum district as compared to e Attock district (6%). The L1 larvae were found in September, while nodules start appearing in October to December and last until the end of February. The month wise peaks of optical density (OD) was higher in December which gradually decrease along with the end of winter season. The prevalence of GWFI revealed no significant difference among three host breeds (Jattal, Beetal and Tedy). According to the results, high infestation rate (28%) was observed in young animals of age group < 1 year as compared to old animals (> 2 years). Topographically, hilly areas (33%) provide favourable climatic conditions for the propagating of larval stages. Sex difference showed no significant difference. The seroprevalence varied significantly with respect to age, month, districts and topographical location. The current study proved that serologic diagnosis (commercial ELISA kit) as more sensitive and accurate for timely diagnosis of GWFI than traditional method. The information on the epizootiology of P. silenus in goats of Pothwar region would help in devising effective control strategies.

Hypodermins A (HA), B (HB), and C (HC) of warble flies are modulatory antigens involved in host inflammation and immune responses during migration of the warble fly larvae through host connective tissues. In the current study, molecular characteristics of the genes encoding HA, HB, and HC were revealed from cDNA constructs of third-instar larvae of Hypoderma bovis. The open reading frame (ORF) of each hypodermin gene was amplified with modified gene-specific primers, and the resulting PCR products were cloned into pGEM-T Easy Vector to produce recombinant plasmids (rHA, rHB, and rHC). The ORF sequences of rHA, rHB, and rHC genes are 705 bp, 771 bp, and 783 bp long and encode proteins of 234, 256, and 263 amino acids with predicted sizes of 25.74 kDa, 27.79 kDa, and 28.51 kDa, respectively. The rHC gene was subcloned into the pET 100/D-TOPO Expression Vector, and the recombinant HC was purified using affinity chromatography. Western blotting indicated that rHC was recognized by the sera of cattle naturally infested with H. bovis. The rHC and a synthetic peptide (sHC) containing its linear B cell-specific epitope were evaluated as serological markers in indirect ELISA (iELISA) for the diagnosis of bovine hypodermosis. Both sHC and rHC iELISAs had sensitivity values equal to or higher than 90 % and specificity values of 100 %. A total of 200 serum samples from cattle in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey were also analyzed by rHC and sHC-iELISAs to reveal the seroprevalence of bovine hypodermosis. The results of both iELISAs were consistent with one another and revealed a hypodermosis prevalence of 62 %. Our study provides the first data on molecular characterization of hypodermin genes of H. bovis and indicates the efficacy of recombinant antigen and peptide-based iELISA for serodiagnosis of bovine hypodermosis., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Myiasis is a parasitic infestation of live vertebrates with the dipteran larvae that grow within the host while feeding on its living or dead tissue. Human myiasis is prevalent among individuals in close association of domestic animals and those inhabiting the unhygienic conditions. Open neglected suppurative wounds are the favourable sites that attract and stimulate the gravid female flies for oviposition. However, the poor personal hygiene, ignorance and the mental illness further add to it. Tracheopulmonary myiasis involves the infestation of foul smelling nasal and oral orifices or neglected wounds like tracheostomal incisions with the parasitic dipteran larvae which may extend up to the trachea, bronchi and lungs leading to serious health complications. Despite the incidence of human tracheopulmonary infestation is rare, the severe medical impediments and heterogeneous worldwide distribution signify the medical importance of this condition. The present manuscript reviews and summarizes the worldwide reported cases of human tracheopulmonary myiasis and the predisposing risk factors for onset of the same, as future reference for parasitologists and medical professionals.

Dermatobia hominis, also known as the human botfly, is native to tropical and subtropical Central and South America and seen in travelers from endemic to temperate regions including the United States and Europe. Cutaneous infestation botfly myiasis involves the development of D. hominis larvae in the skin and is common in tropical locations. The distinct appearance of a cutaneous D. hominis infestation facilitates early diagnosis and intervention where cases are common. However, the identification of D. hominis in temperate regions may prove challenging due to its rarity. D. hominis may be misdiagnosed as folliculitis, an epidermal cyst, or an embedded foreign object with secondary impetigo. One should have a heightened suspicion in someone returning from a vacation in an endemic area, such as Belize. Here we describe the presentation, differential diagnosis, and treatment and encourage enhanced preventative measures among tourists when visiting tropical and subtropical regions. Additionally, we propose a novel classification system for assessing the various stages of infestation and suggest that patients reporting travel to Latin America and experiencing pain disproportionate to an insect bite should lead physicians to consider myiasis caused by D. hominis.

Cochliomyia hominivorax (Diptera: Calliphoridae) has been considered the most important cause of myiasis in animals in the South America with most cases being recorded in cattle. In Brazil, the risk of myiasis in swine population is underestimated, leading to difficulties in the implementation of preventive measures. The aim of this study was to report the occurrence of myiasis infesting a swine population over a one-year period and to evaluate the anatomical distribution of these larvae on the animal's body. From May 2019 to April 2020, a total of 2038 inspections were carried out on pigs reared in two farms located in the state of Pernambuco, Northeastern Brazil. Fly larvae retrieved were morphologically identified and the anatomical distribution of myiasis was graphically represented by a heat map indicating its frequency in swine based on the interpolation of data. Cochliomyia hominivorax larvae (n = 78) of second (n = 29) and third (n = 49) developmental stages were recovered in 13 animals (0.64%) out of 2038 inspections performed. The occurrence of myiasis was detected in eight anatomical sites, with higher concentration on the forehead region and on ears. Data herein obtained provide valuable information on the epidemiology and biological aspects of C. hominivorax affecting pigs. In addition, it indicates that the forehead and ears are important sites of parasitism most likely due the high frequency of skin lesions in these areas., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

This study describes the first known occurrence and treatment of enzootic cutaneous myiasis by Dermatobia hominis in a herd of sambar deer (Rusa unicolor). Sambar deer are clinically affected by enzootic cutaneous myiasis during the spring and summer in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Through direct inspection and clinicopathological evaluation in the herd with 80 R. unicolor, it was observed that infestation by D. hominis caused 100% morbidity. At histological exam, skin had eosinophilic and granulomatous chronic active severe necrohemorrhagic dermatitis associated with botfly and moderate surrounding fibroplasia. The systemic treatment with oral ivermectin at 0.08% was effective in 93.7% of deer with enzootic cutaneous myiasis after fourteen days. After treatment, the skin deer had eosinophilic and granulomatous chronic severe dermatitis associated with degenerated botfly and severe fibroplasia. Notable differences in leukocyte profile were observed between groups pre- and post-treatment. Decrease of relative values of neutrophils and eosinophils were significant in the treated deer group. An increase of relative values of monocytes was also confirmed in the treated group. Sambar deer was the only species affected by D. hominis, even though several other wild herbivores were kept in the same area. More studies are needed to elucidate the susceptibility of R. unicolor to D. hominis cutaneous infestations.

The article reviews literature on myiasis in Africa and cases that originated in Africa over the last two decades (1998-2018). The relevant literature was obtained by using several databases (Science-Direct, JSTOR, Google Scholar, Ebscohost and PubMed). We searched for the following words or their combination myiasis, maggots, fly species responsible for myiasis found in Africa, and the different types of myiasis. References in several articles provided links to other relevant works. Only papers written in English were reviewed. In total, we reviewed 51 articles which covered a total of 849 myiasis cases. The review encompasses geographical distribution of the disease, dipteran species responsible, predisposing factors, sex of the patient, type of myiasis and treatment. Myiasis is found in most parts of the African continent, however only 18 articles reported myiasis cases in Africa during the period under review. The rest of the articles report cases from the rest of the world but acquired by travellers when visiting Africa. Cordylobia anthropophaga (Blanchard) was responsible for 93.28% of all the reported cases in this review. The low number of articles on human myiasis reported in Africa may be due to underreporting by physicians or most cases are not diagnosed. Therefore, the actual prevalence of myiasis in Africa is currently unknown., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:, (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

In the One Health scenario, a deep understanding of the dynamics potentially threatening the development and implementation of useful pest and vector management tools is of key importance. The New World screwworm fly, Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) (Diptera: Calliphoridae), is characterized by a wide host range. It acts as an important agent of myiasis in humans and warm-blooded animals in the Neotropics, and has been eliminated from a wide region through genetic methods. Of note, Serebrovsky had already proposed in 1940 the principles of autocidal control by the translocation of segments between two chromosomes, but his work was negated by Lysenko, based on the negation of Mendelian genetics. This entomological case study emphasizes the danger of politics interfering with science, a still contemporary hot issue. The negation of global warming or current pandemics are further examples of this noxious influence.

Introduction: Myiasis is common in tropical regions, but now increasing incidence is seen in the west due to international travel. Otorhinolaryngological myiasis is uncommon and is seen in diabetics, alcoholics or patients unable in self-care., Objectives: To study presentations of otorhinolaryngological myiasis, identify associated risk factors and species of flies causing myiasis., Methods: Clinical findings and co-morbidities of 67 myiasis cases were noted. Maggots were identified, manually removed, and patients were managed with topical treatment, systemic ivermectin and antibiotics., Findings: Thirty-three nasal myiasis, 13 aural myiasis and 5 patients with oral myiasis were noted. Seven patients with head neck wounds myiasis and nine patients of tracheostome myiasis were recorded., Discussion: Warm humid climate of tropical regions is a major concern along with co-existing conditions like poor sanitation, alcoholism, psychiatric diseases and neuropathies. Hesitancy is seen in attendants and health care professionals to deal with myiasis., Conclusion: Awareness about risk factors is important in avoiding myiasis along with prompt treatment which reduces morbidity. Tracheostome myiasis is an under-documented entity rather than a rare presentation., Funding: None., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest: None declared, (Copyright © The Author(s).)

This is the first case report in Egypt and Middle East region of human intestinal myiasis caused by Clogmia albipunctata larvae. A 36-year-old male patient presented to the Outpatient Clinic of Internal Medicine in Beni-Suef University Hospital complaining of abdominal pain, bloating, and diarrhea intermittent with constipation. Patient's stool sample was referred to the Department of Medical Parasitology for examination of passed larvae and treatment prescription. Examination of larvae by light and scanning electron microscopy confirmed the morphological identification of fourth instar larvae of C. albipunctata. Human intestinal myiasis is an unusual cause of gastrointestinal manifestations., (Copyright © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Oestrus ovis is the most common cause of human ophthalmomyiasis. So far, majority of ophthalmomyiasis cases have been reported from Mediterranean countries, but not from Croatia. In current study, we present first two cases of human ophthalmomyiasis in Croatia, caused by O. ovis larvae. Reviewing a PubMed database, additional 259 cases of human ophthalmomyiasis in countries of Mediterranean basin have been reported. A total of 260 (99.62%) cases had external, while 1 (0.38%) had internal form of ocular myiasis. In all cases, O. ovis larvae were identified as the causative agent. O. ovis infestation is usually reported in shepherds and farmers although there is a high prevalence of infection in urban areas as well. Various climatic factors influence O. ovis larvipositional activity. Air temperature is the most important factor affecting O. ovis larviposition, while humidity, wind speed, and time of the day play only a moderate role. Most common symptoms of ophthalmomyiasis are irritation and redness, and in more than half of cases infestation is multiple. Ophthalmomyiasis interna is eye-compromising condition. Since there is reduced awareness among patients and medical professionals, the real number of ophthalmomyiasis cases is probably significantly higher than published. Global warming predisposes future increase of O. ovis prevalence in humans, which emphasizes the need for mandatory reporting and surveillance of disease.

We review epidemiological and clinical data on human myiasis from Ecuador, based on data from the Ministry of Public Health (MPH) and a review of the available literature for clinical cases. The larvae of four flies, Dermatobia hominis, Cochliomyia hominivorax, Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis, and Lucilia eximia, were identified as the causative agents in 39 reported clinical cases. The obligate D. hominis, causing furuncular lesions, caused 17 (43.5%) cases distributed along the tropical Pacific coast and the Amazon regions. The facultative C. hominivorax was identified in 15 (38%) clinical cases, infesting wound and cavitary lesions including orbital, nasal, aural and vaginal, and occurred in both subtropical and Andean regions. C. hominivorax was also identified in a nosocomial hospital-acquired wound. Single infestations were reported for S. haemorrhoidalis and L. eximia. Of the 39 clinical cases, 8 (21%) occurred in tourists. Ivermectin, when it became available, was used to treat furuncular, wound, and cavitary lesions successfully. MPH data for 2013-2015 registered 2,187 cases of which 54% were reported in men; 46% occurred in the tropical Pacific coast, 30% in the temperate Andes, 24% in the tropical Amazon, and 0.2% in the Galapagos Islands. The highest annual incidence was reported in the Amazon (23 cases/100,000 population), followed by Coast (5.1/100,000) and Andes (4.7/100,000). Human myiasis is a neglected and understudied ectoparasitic infestation, being endemic in both temperate and tropical regions of Ecuador. Improved education and awareness among populations living in, visitors to, and health personnel working in high-risk regions, is required for improved epidemiological surveillance, prevention, and correct diagnosis and treatment., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Traumatic myiasis causes substantial economic losses to farmers worldwide. In the present study, six flocks of sheep (2261 sheep) were investigated in Gansu, China, and 207 of 552 larvae were genetically characterized based on three genes, including cyt b, EF-1α, and white gene, by polymerase chain reaction and sequence analysis. A survey of sheep in China revealed that the prevalence of vulvar myiasis of six sheep flocks was 5.00% (11/220, Flock1), 4.85% (10/206, Flock2), 4.50% (9/200, Flock3), 5.00% (15/300, Flock4), 4.68% (15/320, Flock5), 0% (0/1015, Flock6), respectively. The sequence and phylogenetic analysis showed that only Wohlfahrtia magnifica was detected in the field samples. This is the first report of ovine vulvar myiasis caused by W. magnifica in Gansu, China. Some prophylactic measures are strongly recommended to reduce the risk of sheep acquiring traumatic myiasis in Gansu, China.

Myiasis is an infestation caused by larvae of Diptera in humans and other vertebrates. In domestic cats, Felis silvestris catus L. (Carnivora: Felidae), four dipteran families have been reported as agents of obligatory and facultative myiasis: Oestridae, Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and Muscidae. Among agents of obligatory myiasis, the most frequent genus is Cuterebra Clark (Oestridae) and the most frequent species is Cochliomyia hominivorax (Coquerel) (Calliphoridae). Among the agents of facultative myiasis, the most frequent species is Lucilia sericata (Meigen) (Calliphoridae). A survey of myiasis in cats reported in literature shows that the cases are distributed worldwide and linked to the geographical range of the dipteran species. Factors favouring the occurrence of myiasis in cats are prowling in infested areas, poor hygiene conditions due to diseases and/or neglect, and wounds inflicted during territorial or reproductive competition. The aim of the review is to provide an extended survey of literature on myiasis in cats, as general information and possible development of guidelines for veterinarians, entomologists and other researchers interested in the field.

Background: Oestrosis, caused by the larvae of Oestrus ovis, commonly known as sheep nose bot, is an obligatory cavitary myiasis of sheep and goats. Oestrus ovis is a widespread parasite, but little is known about the prevalence of oestrosis at the global and broad geographical levels. The present study aimed to explore the epidemiology of oestrosis at the global and regional level to estimate prevalences and their associated factors using a systematic approach. This is, to the author's knowledge, the first meta-analysis of oestrosis in sheep and goats., Methods: Published articles were obtained from nine electronic databases (PubMed, CAB Abstracts, Web of Science, Scopus, UCB library, Medline, Biosis Citation Index, Indian journals and Google Scholar) reporting the prevalence of O. ovis in sheep and goats from 1970 to 2018. Pooled prevalences were estimated using a random effect meta-analysis model., Results: Sixty-six studies were eligible, and data from 40,870 sheep and 18,216 goats were used for quantitative analysis. The random effect estimated prevalence of oestrosis at the global level in sheep was 51.15% (95% CI: 42.80-59.51%) and in goats was 42.19% (95% CI: 33.43-50.95%). The pooled prevalence estimates for Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas were 47.85% (95% CI: 36.04-59.66%), 44.48% (95% CI: 33.09-55.87%), 56.83% (95% CI: 48.92-64.74%) and 34.46% (95% CI: 19.90-49.01%), respectively. Heterogeneity (I 2  > 80%) was detected in most pooled estimates., Conclusions: Oestrosis is highly prevalent in many geographical regions of the world, especially in Europe and Africa. Factors that contribute to the pooled prevalence estimate of oestrosis need to be emphasised in any survey to estimate the true prevalence of oestrosis. Furthermore, there is a need for immunisation or implementation of other preventive measures to reduce the burden of oestrosis in sheep and goats and to improve the health and welfare status.

Fragmented habitats generally harbour small populations that are potentially more prone to local extinctions caused by biotic factors such as parasites. We evaluated the effects of botflies (Cuterebra apicalis) on naturally fragmented populations of the gracile mouse opossum (Gracilinanus agilis). We examined how sex, food supplementation experiment, season and daily climatic variables affected body condition and haemoglobin concentration in animals that were parasitized or not by botflies. Although parasitism did not affect body condition, haemoglobin concentrations were lower in parasitized animals. Among the non-parasitized individuals, haemoglobin concentration increased with the increase of maximum temperature and the decrease of relative humidity, a climatic pattern found at the peak of the dry season. However, among parasitized animals, the opposite relationship between haemoglobin concentration and relative humidity occurred, as a consequence of parasite-induced anaemia interacting with dehydration as an additional stressor. We conclude that it is critical to assess how climate affects animal health (through blood parameters) to understand the population consequences of parasitism on the survival of individuals and hence of small population viability.

Philornis is a neotropical genus of muscid fly that interacts with birds and may affect the development and survival of the birds' offspring. Although Philornis is a relatively common parasite, there is a lack of information about Philornis hosts in several parts of the Americas. In this study, two nests of the Rufousfronted Thornbird ( Phacellodomus rufifrons) were collected in Pedro Leopoldo, southeast Brazil. The first contained four nestlings of advanced age (about 20 d old) and a recently emerged Philornis torquans female adult fly. The second nest contained three nestlings (less than 7 d old) and several Philornis torquans subcutaneous larvae. One of the nestlings was infested by 53 larvae, which had attacked several parts of its body and caused individual wounds containing 1 to more than 15 larvae. The length of the larvae ranged from 3 to 18 mm and only one was a second instar; the remaining 69 were third instars. The pupal period lasted 9-13 d. In total, 71 larvae were collected from the nest, with nestling parasitism varying from 7 to 53 larvae (mean- 23.7±25.5 larvae/nestling).

The public health importance of myiasis [infestation with dipterous (fly) larvae] remains unknown. This disease is spread worldwide in animals and humans, but baseline data on its prevalence are limited. In particular, knowledge on human urogenital myiasis (UGM) is scattered. As such, a systematic search was undertaken of five English and five Persian databases for publications describing UGM cases in English or Persian published between 1975 and 2017. In total, 45 papers reporting 59 UGM cases from various regions of the world are included in this review. All included papers were from the English databases. The age of patients ranged from 5 to 89 years, and the mean age was 40.6 years. Thirty-six of the patients were female and 19 were male. The highest number of cases (n = 12) was reported from Brazil. The most common genera causing UGM were Psychoda spp. (23.7%) and Cochliomyia spp. (11.8%). The vagina was the most commonly reported anatomical location of UGM for women, and the urogenital tract was the most commonly reported location for men. Thirteen cases were reported from rural areas and eight cases from urban areas; the location of other cases was not specified. The incidence of UGM is likely to be substantially underestimated when evaluated based on published case reports. Epidemiological studies, such as questionnaires to medical doctors, could help to gather the necessary baseline data on the occurrence of UGM., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Myiasis refers to the infestation of living humans and vertebrates with fly larvae that feed on necrotic or vital tissue of the host. Since the invasion of new fly species in Europe is currently being observed, which live obligatorily parasitically or are close relatives of such species, the aim of this study is to obtain a global overview of the distribution of myiasis-causing fly species in times of climate change and to assess the possible consequences for Western Europe. A systematic literature search was conducted using Pubmed/Medline for the years 1997 to 2017 and a total of 464 international case reports from 79 countries were evaluated. The described cases were caused by 41 different species. In 99.4% of the cases, it was a colonization by just one species, a maximum of three species were detected in a human. Casuistics from Western Europe mostly describe myiasis as a "holiday souvenir" from tropical regions. Reports of autochthonous cases are rare in comparison to other regions. With regard to rising temperatures and the invasion of new fly species, a noticeable increase in the number of cases in Western Europe is to be assumed, which could be an increasing problem in the clinical area and in care, which is why thorough monitoring for professional identification and treatment seems important in the future.

We documented ectoparasites found on wild black-and-white ruffed lemurs ( Varecia variegata) in the southeastern rain forests of Madagascar and describe trends in parasitism. In this study, 235 mesostigmatid mites (1 male, 87 females, 147 nymphs) identified as Liponyssella sp., in the acarine family Macronyssidae, were collected during 87% (34/39) of lemur examinations (mean number/host=7.9). The only other ectoparasite collected was the louse fly ( Allobosca crassipes; 3 males, 8 females) in the dipteran family Hippoboscidae, which was collected during 26% (10/39) of lemur examinations (mean number/host=1.1). The lemur most heavily parasitized by mites was an adult female with 29 adult females and 17 nymphs, all collected from the face.

Objective: To report a case series of external ophthalmomyiasis in a region of Spain together with its common epidemiological factors and treatment., Material and Methods: A presentation is made of four clinical cases of patients with external ocular myiasis caused by Oestrus ovis larvae., Results: Ocular myiasis is a parasitic infection by larval stages of flies. It can affect the ocular globe externally and / or internally, with the former being the most frequently found condition. The organism that mainly affects the eyes is the Oestrus ovis larvae., Conclusion: Ocular external myiasis is a rare condition that occasionally can occur in humans. In this case series, a common risk factor for infection is established: the previous exposure to livestock and / or agricultural activity. An adequate diagnosis and treatment could avoid the transition from external to internal form, as well as its complications., (Copyright © 2018. Publicado por Elsevier España, S.L.U.)

Background: Epidermal parasitic skin diseases (EPSD) occur in most countries and cause a considerable health and economic burden, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. The aim of this study was to assess and analyse peer-reviewed literature on EPSD in humans. The results of this study serve as an indicator of the extent the scientific community, health authorities, and international health agencies interact with EPSD as a health problem that is commonly associated with poverty and poor hygiene., Methods: A bibliometric analysis methodology was used. The Scopus database was used to retrieve documents about EPSD for the study period (1967-2017). The study focused on scabies, tungiasis, pediculosis, hookworm-related cutaneous larva migrans (HrCLM), myiasis, and cutaneous strongyloidiasis. Documents that specifically and explicitly discuss EPSD in animals, aquatic organisms, and birds were excluded., Results: In total, 4186 documents were retrieved. A fluctuated growth of publications on EPSD in the past five decades was found. The retrieved documents received 43 301 citations, an average of 10.3 citations per article and an h-index of 74. The keywords "scabies" and was the most commonly encountered keyword followed by the keywords "head lice" and "pediculosis". The most active journal involved in publishing articles on EPSD was the International Journal of Dermatology (164; 3.9%). Researchers from 93 different countries published the retrieved articles. The USA led with 735 (17.6%) documents, followed by the UK (274; 6.5%), and Germany (259; 6.2%). In terms of institutions, the Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin in Germany was the most active in this field with 78 (1.9%) publications, followed by the Universidade Federal do Ceará in Brazil with 52 (1.2%) publications., Conclusions: Research on scabies and pediculosis dominated the field of EPSD research to the expense of tungiasis, HrCLM, myiasis, and cutaneous strongyloidiasis. There was an underrepresentation of literature from the tropics and subtropics despite EPSD being common in these areas. This could possibly be explained by the presence of limited number of non-English journals in the Scopus database. International research collaborations and research networking should be strengthened to help advance and prioritize research on EPSD.

Hosts counteract infections using two distinct defence strategies, resistance (reduction in pathogen fitness) and tolerance (limitation of infection damage). These strategies have been minimally investigated in multi-host systems, where they may vary across host species, entailing consequences both for hosts (virulence) and parasites (transmission). Comprehending the interplay among resistance, tolerance, virulence and parasite success is highly relevant for our understanding of the ecology and evolution of infectious and parasitic diseases. Our work investigated the interaction between an insect parasite and its most common bird host species, focusing on two relevant questions: (i) are defence strategies different between main and alternative hosts and, (ii) what are the consequences (virulence and parasite success) of different defence strategies? We conducted a matched field experiment and longitudinal studies at the host and the parasite levels under natural conditions, using a system comprising Philornis torquans flies and three bird hosts - the main host and two of the most frequently used alternative hosts. We found that main and alternative hosts have contrasting defence strategies, which gave rise in turn to contrasting virulence and parasite success. In the main bird host, minor loss of fitness, no detectable immune response, and high parasite success suggest a strategy of high tolerance and negligible resistance. Alternative hosts, on the contrary, resisted by mounting inflammatory responses, although with very different efficiency, which resulted in highly dissimilar parasite success and virulence. These results show clearly distinct defence strategies between main and alternative hosts in a natural multi-host system. They also highlight the importance of defence strategies in determining virulence and infection dynamics, and hint that defence efficiency is a crucial intervening element in these processes., (Copyright © 2018 Australian Society for Parasitology. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Blowfly strike is a devastating and often rapidly fatal disease in rabbits. In Great Britain (GB), Lucilia sericata is the primary causative species. Despite its severity, there has been minimal investigatory work into the disease in rabbits. Here we used text mining to screen electronic health records (EHRs) from a large sentinel network of 389 veterinary practices in GB between March 2014 and April 2017 for confirmed cases of blowfly strike in rabbits. Blowfly strike was identified in 243 of 42,226 rabbit consultations (0.6%), affecting 205 individual rabbits. The anatomical site of recorded blowfly strike lesions was overwhelmingly the perineal area (n = 109, 52.4%). Less commonly lesions were observed affecting other areas of the body (n = 9, 4.3%) and head (n = 8, 3.8%); in 83 consultations (39.9%), the affected area was not specified. Of the rabbits presenting with blowfly strike, 44.7% were recorded as being euthanized or died. A case control study was used to identify risk factors for blowfly strike in this population. Whilst sex and neuter status in isolation were not significantly associated with blowfly strike, entire female rabbits showed a 3.3 times greater odds of being a case than neutered female rabbits. Rabbits five years of age and over were more than 3.8 times likely to present for blowfly strike. For every 1 °C rise in environmental temperature between 4.67 °C and 17.68 °C, there was a 33% increase risk of blowfly strike, with cases peaking in July or August. Overall blowfly strike cases started earlier and peaked higher in the south of Great Britain. The most northerly latitude studied was at lower risk of blowfly strike than the most southerly (OR = 0.50, p < 0.001). There appeared to be no significant relationship between blowfly strike in rabbits and either the sheep density or rural and urban land coverage types. The results presented here can be used for targeted health messaging to reduce the impact of this deadly disease for rabbits. We propose that real-time temporal and spatial surveillance of the rabbit disease may also help inform sheep control, where the seasonal profile is very similar, and where routine surveillance data is also not available. Our results highlight the value of sentinel databases based on EHRs for research and surveillance., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Blood-feeding arthropods play a major role in the transmission of several flaviviruses, which represent an important problem for human health. Currently, dengue is one of the most important arboviral emerging diseases worldwide. Furthermore, some previous studies have reported the presence of viral nucleic acids and antibodies against dengue virus (DENV) in wild animals. Our knowledge of the role played by wildlife reservoirs in the sylvatic transmission and maintenance of DENV remains limited. Our objective was to screen blood-feeding ectoparasites (bat flies) and their common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) hosts, for flaviviruses in Hidalgo, Mexico. We detected Flavivirus sequences in 38 pools of ectoparasites (Diptera: Streblidae, Strebla wiedemanni and Trichobius parasiticus) and 8 tissue samples of D. rotundus by RT-PCR and semi-nested PCR using FlaviPF1S, FlaviPR2bis, and FlaviPF3S primers specific for NS5, a gene highly conserved among flaviviruses. Phylogenetic inference analysis performed using the maximum likelihood algorithm implemented in PhyML showed that six sequences clustered with DENV (bootstrap value = 53.5%). Although this study supports other reports of DENV detection in bats and arthropods other than Aedes mosquitoes, the role of these ectoparasitic flies and of hematophagous bats in the epidemiology of DENV still warrants further investigation.

Infestations caused by fly larvae (Myiasis) have been observed in patients with risk factors and in tropical zones. The aim of our study was to describe the clinical and epidemiological aspects and the risk factors associated with the occurrence of obligatory myiasis, as well as the therapeutic approach to patients. We identified the cases of myiasis diagnosed in two referral hospitals in northern Peru from January 2012 to December 2015 and included patients in whom larval development and a compatible clinical profile were observed. Epidemiological, clinical, analytical, diagnostic, therapeutic, and follow-up data were collected from clinical files. Nine clinical cases were compatible with a diagnosis of myiasis; of these, two were pediatric patients, one was a middle-aged adult, and six were elderly patients. Four of the nine patients were male. The identified species were Dermatobia hominis and Cochliomyia hominivorax. The therapeutic approach included antiparasitic therapy with ivermectin, antibacterial, and in some cases, anti-inflammatory drugs. Dermatobia hominis and C. hominivorax are the predominant species causing myiasis in northern Peru.