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SUMMARY: 'Unavoidable pollutants', 'natural poisons', 'invisible thieves', and 'silent killers' are the popular names of a group of fundal metabolites, mycotoxins, and the disease caused by these toxins is referred to as mycotoxicosis. In poultry, this disease usually occurs when mycotoxins-producing fungi grow on grain and feed. Although more than 500 different mycotoxins have been identified, scientists have focussed only on mycotoxins of medical and agricultural concern, which are found to be toxic. The pathogenesis and therapeutics of mycotoxicosis in poultry production remain essential challenges. Oxidative stress is a driving force in the pathogenesis of mycotoxicosis. Oxidative stress induces cellular and nuclear damage and mitochondrial dysfunction through the overproduction of reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Furthermore, mycotoxins induce ribosomal stress that activates multiple cellular pathways, such as nuclear transcription factor κβ and mitogen-activated protein kinase. Activation of these aberrant cellular signalling pathways and oxidative stress triggers a cascade of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which contributes to apoptosis and tissue/organ dysfunction, such as immunosuppression, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and gastrointestinal tract toxicity. The consequences of this toxicity lead to poor feed conversion, feed refusal, poor growth rate, reduced fertility, and reduced hatchability of poultry. Therefore, optimally, a better understanding of the disease pathogenesis and oxidative stress is needed to identify specific and targeted therapeutic approaches to combat mycotoxicosis in poultry. This review describes the pathogenesis of mycotoxicosis with particular emphasis on oxidative stress in poultry. This also paves the way for preventive and therapeutic approaches aimed at limiting oxidative stress that can enhance growth, fertility, and production in poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are secondary toxic metabolites produced by fungi of species Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium spp. Most fungi are aerobic (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the small size of their spores. At high humidity and temperature, molds develop on grain, fruit, nuts and grapes before harvesting. If stored improperly, they further damage and contaminate the grain and fruit. In this way, accumulated mycotoxins have a direct impact on humans, since grain and fruit are staple foods. In addition, when animals are fed with feed contaminated with mycotoxins, additional intoxication of people occurs through the consumption of products of animal origin such as milk, meat, eggs, sausages, etc. Mycotoxins have been investigated in relation to a wide range of adverse effects on human health, which can be both acute and chronic. Epidemiological and experimental studies have established that aflatoxins cause liver cancer. For fumonisins, studies suggest a possible role in esophageal cancer and in neural tube defects. For deoxynivalenol (DON) and other trichothecenes, exposure has been associated with acute poisoning, vomiting, and gastrointestinal problems. For ochratoxin A and zearalenone (ZEA), human health effects remain undetermined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The purpose of this review is to elucidate the actual threat of the most prevalent mycotoxins in agricultural commodities and human/animal food/feed for the induction of foodborne diseases or ailments. The underestimated hazard of combined mycotoxin uptake by animals or humans is critically discussed with regard to synergistic or additive interaction between some target mycotoxins. The real toxicity of target mycotoxin combinations as it happens in practice is evaluated and possible lower limit values or control measures are suggested in such cases. Some critical points on adequate risk assessment, hygiene control, and regulation of mycotoxins are discussed. The efficiency of current mycotoxin regulations and control measures is evaluated in regard to human/animal health hazards. The risk assessment in the case of multiple mycotoxin exposure of humans/animals via food/feed or agricultural commodities is evaluated and some suggestions are proposed in such cases. Appropriate control measures and food safety issues throughout the food supply chain are proposed in order to prevent the target foodborne diseases. Some preventive measures and possible veterinary hygiene controls or risk evaluations are proposed in some natural cases of foodborne diseases for preventing mycotoxin contamination of animal products designed for human consumption and to avoid possible public health issues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Mushroom toxicity is an important etiology of acute liver injury in a patient with gastrointestinal symptoms. Case Report: We present the case of a male patient presenting to the emergency department (ED) with gastrointestinal distress who was placed under ED observation for elevated liver function tests. During his hospital course, it was revealed he had consumed wild mushrooms believed to be Amanita phalloides. Conclusion: While mushroom ingestion and subsequent toxicity are rare, a high index of suspicion in foraging hobbyists is essential to arriving at the correct diagnosis and directing the patient to the appropriate management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The subject of this review paper is to evaluate the underestimated hazard of multiple mycotoxin exposure of animals/humans for the appearance of foodborne ailments and diseases. The significance of joint mycotoxin interaction in the development of foodborne diseases is discussed, and appropriate conclusions are made. The importance of low feed/food levels of some target mycotoxins co-contaminations in food and feedstuffs for induction of target foodborne mycotoxicoses is also studied in the available literature. The appropriate hygiene control and the necessary risk assessment in regard to possible hazards for animals and humans are also discussed, and appropriate suggestions are made. Some internationally recognized prophylactic measures, management of the risk, and the necessity of elaboration of new international regulations in regard to the maximum permitted levels are also carefully discussed and analysed in the cases of multiple mycotoxin contaminations. The necessity of harmonization of mycotoxin regulations and control measures at international levels is also discussed in order to facilitate food trade between the countries and to ensure global food safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumption of tea and herbal teas is increasing worldwide due to their beneficial substances and daily antioxidant properties. However, in unfavorable environmental conditions, biological contamination can occur and cause a variety of diseases in humans and animals. In the meantime, fungal infection is of special importance as it produces secondary metabolites (mycotoxins). Mycotoxins affect various tissues of the body and their acute and chronic toxic effects can have serious problems for public health. Health risk varies in terms of mycotoxins and depends primarily on the geographical area and economic status of the population. This review examines the published articles about determining the presence of mycotoxins in herbal teas and teas and transfer to infusions 1997-2019 using high technique apparatus. The collected information was obtained from PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, and Web of Science. This review decided to investigate the mycotoxins levels in tea and herbal tea and then consider different and effective proposed methods of removing or reducing mycotoxins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Of the mycotoxicoses caused by molds contaminating grains or their byproducts, leukoencephalomalacia of horses and less frequently aflatoxicosis in cattle have been reported in South America. However, the most important group of mycotoxins in the region are those caused by fungi that infect forages and other types of plants and have regional distribution. In this group, ergotism is important, both caused by Claviceps purpurea infecting grains or by Epichloë coenophiala infecting Schedonorus arundinaceus. Other important mycotoxicoses are those caused by indole-diterpenes produced by Clavicipitaceous fungi including Claviceps paspali in Paspalum spp., Claviceps cynodontes in Cynodon dactylon , and by Periglandula a seed transmitted symbiont associated with the tremorgenic plant Ipomoea asarifolia. The latter is an important poisoning in the northeastern and northern Brazil. Other important mycotoxicoses are those caused by swainsonine containing plants. It was demonstrated that swainsonine contained in Ipomoea carnea var. fistulosa is produced by an epibiotic fungus of the order Chaetothyriales whose mycelia develop on the adaxial surface of the leaves. Swainsonine is also produced by the symbiotic, endobiotic fungi Alternaria section Undifilum spp., which is associated with Astragalus spp. in the Argentinian Patagonia causing poisoning. Another form of mycotoxicosis occurs in poisoning by Baccharis spp., mainly B. coridifolia , a very important toxic plant in South America that contains macrocyclic trichothecenes probably produced by an endophytic fungus that has not yet been identified. Pithomycotoxicosis caused by Pithomyces chartarum used to be an important mycotoxicosis in the region, mainly in cattle grazing improved pastures of legumes and grasses. Slaframine poisoning, diplodiosis and poisoning by barley contaminated by Aspergillus clavatus has been rarely diagnosed in Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. [Display omitted] • Mycotoxicoses are important diseases for ruminants and equids in South America. • Aflatoxicosis and leukoencephalomalacia affect cattle and horses, respectively. • Indole-diterpenes produced by various endophytic fungi in different plant species frequently affect ruminants. • Ergotism caused by Claviceps purpurea and Neotyphodium coenophialum in Schedonorus arundinaceus are important diseases. • Poisonings by Baccharis coridifolia is also considered a mycotoxicosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents results of efficacy studies for a complex plant-based preparation for poultry mycotoxicosis. Feed additive fibralin contains polysaccharides (dried sugar beet pulp) and phospholipids (rapeseed lecithin) in the proportion 4:1. Eighteen-day-old “Ross-308” broiler chickens with average weight of (665.10 ± 4.28) g were tested, since such mycotoxins as T-2 toxin, zearalenone and aflatoxin B1 were detected in their feeds. Maximum admissible level of each toxin was not exceeded, however, their cumulative effect on poultry resulted in mycotoxicosis. Use of fibralin in the feed (3 kg per one ton) for 10 days reduced clinical signs of intoxication, increased flock survival by 13.5% and stimulated body weight gain by 15.8%. Pharmacological effect of fibralin was demonstrated by improvement of blood morphobiochemical parameters in poultry, i.e. reduction of leukocytes by 19.3% and cholesterol by 13.6%; and an increase in the number of erythrocytes by 19.4%, hemoglobin by 8.1% and calcium by 9.5%. Antitoxin therapy had a positive effect on liver structure and functions and that fact was confirmed by a decrease in aminotransferase level in serum and normal levels of total protein. The data obtained may justify the use of this natural bio-preparation as a product with antitoxic and hepatoprotective properties and the use of fibralin for mycotoxicosis treatment of poultry.

Introduction. Mycotoxins (MT) are secondary metabolites of microscopic mold fungi with pronounced toxic properties.Text. Currently, the development of express methods for determining the content of MT with mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic properties is of particular importance in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The creation of methods for their analytical control continues to be the focus of attention of the largest international organizations (IUPAC, AOAC International and IFJU), specialized national organizations of the EU and the USA, as well as academies and ministries of many countries of the world. By the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation (RF), the Doctrine of Food Security of the RF № 120 dated January 30, 2010 was approved. The Ministry of Agriculture of the RF issued an order «On the implementation of the state veterinary laboratory monitoring plan» № 780 dated May 30, 2003. In our country, MT studies, according to the plan Monitoring and Recommendations of the EU Commission are limited to determining the content of six tested MTs - the sum of aflatoxins (AFL), ochratoxins (OT), zearalenone (ZEA), trichothecenes (TT), patulin (P), T-2 toxin in agricultural raw materials, food products and feed. MTs are natural pollutants not only of grains of cereals, legumes, sunflower seeds, as well as vegetables and fruits, but also of medicinal plant materials (MPM), as well as pharmaceutical substances of plant origin, in particular, such as fatty vegetable oils widely used in pharmacy in as independent drugs, as well as auxiliary components for the production of drugs, dietary supplements, solvents for injection drugs, etc. In the RF, the MT content in MPM is not yet standardized. It is almost impossible to prevent contamination of the MPM MT, therefore, strict control of these substances is necessary. However, this problem and the need to introduce such a study into the list of indicators for evaluating the quality of MPM requires an in-depth study and an assessment of the degree of its infection. In addition, standard methods for determining normalized MTs are usually not designed to detect transformed forms, and their content remains unaccounted for. Therefore, MT metabolites modified by a medicinal plant are called masked (conjugated, transformed) MT plants, the content of which also needs to be evaluated. MTs can also form during storage of MPM under the action of microscopic fungi developing in them. Since the basis for obtaining herbal medicines are medicinal plants, which are raw materials that are most contaminated with various microorganisms, viruses, and molds, not only MPM, but also almost all substances and herbal medicines (HM) can be infected. It has been shown that MTs remain in dried MPM for more than 100 years. It was found that a lot of MPM densely seeded with Deuteromycetes class molds, which can be detected by microscopic analysis. The aim of this work was to systematize the methods for determining the main MT based on the analysis of domestic literature for their possible further use in assessing the quality of MPM and HM based on it.Conclusion. MTs adversely affect the body of animals and humans and are difficult to decontaminate. MTs may be present in MPM without visible mold growth. MT does not lose toxicity for many years. It is not possible to completely eliminate the formation of MT in raw materials, therefore, the task of controlling its quality of services is to identify the presence of MT and compare the detected amount with the norms of maximum content. The content of MT in MPM is currently not determined in the RF by the RF GF XIV ed. However, by the decision of the Council of the Eurasian Economic Commission dated January 26, 2018 №15, the Rules of Good Practice for the cultivation, collection, processing and storage of raw materials of plant origin were approved, which stipulate the inadmissibility of mold formation during the primary processing, storage and transportation of cattle. Therefore, the accumulation of experimental material, as well as the development of pharmacopoeial methods for the analysis of MPM, constantly tightening quality requirements, can lead to the inclusion of this indicator in pharmacopoeial articles (PA). In this connection, it was interesting to conduct a review of existing methods of MT analysis, with their possible subsequent inclusion in the GPA and PA. The traditional methods of MT analysis are physicochemical methods. The most widely used chromatographic methods: HPLC, GLC using various detectors (mass spectrometric, fluorescence, amperometric, etc.). TLC occupies a special place among the separation methods. These methods, of course, are able to provide sufficient specificity and the necessary sensitivity of the determination, however, they are expensive, designed primarily for specialized and well-equipped stationary laboratories, and also require highly qualified personnel. None of them can also be attributed to express methods. The complexity of determining MT in MPM is associated with long and laborious sample preparation, as well as with the use of expensive highly sensitive methods (HPLC, GLC), which cannot be applied directly at the place of production and processing of MPM. The most promising are immunochemical test methods for determining MT, based on the immunochemical reaction between the antibody and antigen. It was shown that the high specificity and the possibility of detecting MT in low concentrations in combination with the existing diverse instrumentation make it possible to consider immunochemical methods of analysis as the most promising for wide practical use.

Ozone, an allotrope of oxygen has been widely used in different spheres of human activity since World War I to present day. It is used in medicine, in the chemical industry and chemical laboratories; for water treatment and disinfection of surgical tools owing to its antibacterial, antiviral, antiprotozoal and antifungal properties. Ozone is also used for biological waste treatment in abattoirs and sewage water treatment stations, as well as in granaries as a disinfectant against fungi, arthropod parasites, etc. Ozone could be uses principally in food industry as well as in the case of natural or manmade disaster. The purpose of this review is to present methods of how ozone can be applied in the poultry processing industry as well as to investigate its potential importance as a counteraction agent against biological weapons, as well as a useful purification agent in natural and manmade disaster crises. A retrospective and content analysis on scientific articles was carried out. Over the last few years ozone has been ever more widely used in the food processing industry – for eliminating harmful micro-organisms, antibiotics, pesticides and mycotoxins which happen to be present in some foods. Various forms of ozone could be used as an effective disinfectant in the production of poultry meat and by-products. Ozone has a strong bactericidal action against a number of pathogens in food such as Salmonella thyphimurium, Esherihia coli, Shigella sonei, Vibrio cholera, and Staphyloccocus aureus and its toxins. In addition, ozone can be used to destroy Aspergilus flavus and its afla toxins, Fuzarium genus fungi and its mycotoxins, to inactivate spores of Bacillus subtilis and antibiotic resistant strains of Micobacterium tuberculosis, which makes it an effective for food poisoning prevention and also can be used to counteract the effects of biological weapons. Ozone could be used as a reliable, anti-epidemiological agent in cases of natural and anthropogenic disasters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Keywords: aflatoxins; ochratoxin A; Aspergilli; food chain; mycotoxicoses; risk assessment; climate change EN aflatoxins ochratoxin A Aspergilli food chain mycotoxicoses risk assessment climate change N.PAG N.PAG 4 11/13/20 20201111 NES 201111 I Aspergillus i -produced mycotoxins can enter the feed and food chain at many points in both pre-harvest and post-harvest. Monitoring Atoxigenic Biocontrol Aspergillus flavus Genotypes in Fields Application of non-aflatoxigenic I A. flavus i strains to prevent aflatoxin contamination under field conditions is one of the leading pre-harvest strategies to control this harmful, carcinogenic mycotoxin in the feed and food chain. [Extracted from the article]

The article gives an overview of promising trends for the use of probiotics for the creation of feed additives, on the basis of which it was concluded that it is expedient to create feed additives containing a complex of probiotics and prebiotics that have a synergistic effect and a broad spectrum of action.

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring toxins that frequently contaminate food and feed and are primarily synthesized by moulds from the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Alternaria and Claviceps. These substances are very stable compounds, resistant to different conditions of food production, processing and storage. Mycotoxins can cause a number of adverse effects on human and animal health, so-called mycotoxicoses, including carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, genotoxicity, immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and others, often acting simultaneously at multiple target sites in the body, depending on the toxicity of the mycotoxin itself and the dose and time of exposure. A large number of mycotoxins still lack sufficient evidence of their adverse effects on human health, but based on the established susceptibility of different animal species, it is assumed that similar effects can be induced in humans. At the same time, for most mycotoxins that occur frequently in food and feed, their effects in the body have not been elucidated and can vary from antagonistic to synergistic. This paper provides an overview of the mechanisms of action of mycotoxins of major public health importance and their toxic effects in the body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins in food may threat public health at a global scale. However, for most of them, the current body of knowledge does not support a proper risk assessment and more data are needed to clarify their toxicity. In particular, the assessment of "personalized" action may succeed in understanding and counteracting the effects of many toxicants. Therefore, the assessment of "personalized" toxicology of mycotoxins might deserve attention to foster the understanding of their mechanisms of toxicity and to eventually improve the assessment of risk. This work dealt with the early warning analysis of possible differences in eliciting androgenic stimuli by alternariol, a widespread mycotoxin produce by Alternaria species, when mutations on the androgen receptor occur. It was applied a computational study based on docking simulations, pharmacophore modeling and molecular dynamics to assess the capability of alternariol to interact with the androgen receptor bearing the M749I substitution – which confers insensitivity to androgens stimulation. The results collected pointed to possible "protective" effects against alternariol suggesting: i) the likely existence of inter-individual responses to alternariol stimulation; ii) the meaningfulness of collecting data on "personalized" response to mycotoxins toward a more precise paradigm addressing the risk assessment at the individual level. Image 1 • The emerging mycotoxin alternariol (AOH) needs further toxicological investigations. • The androgenic activity of AOH has been addressed. • The structural basis of insensitivity of M749I androgen receptor were investigated. • M749I seemed to "protect" androgen receptor from AOH stimulation. • "Personalized" action of AOH deserves attention to deepen AOH androgenicity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information emergence of fungal pathogen, Candida auris. Topics discussed include views on high resistance to drug classes, and invasive disease carries an astonishingly high mortality rate; threat to public health as its ability to readily colonize skin, spread rapidly among patients, and cause severe disease; and views on target sites of pathogen involves bloodstream with isolation from the urinary or respiratory tract close behind.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by several species of Fusarium fungi, which can be predominantly found in agricultural crops such as wheat. In livestock, deoxynivalenol-contaminated grain can produce vomiting, feed refusal, weight loss, and diarrhea. This paper reports an electrochemical immunosensor for the detection of residual DON mycotoxin in food samples. The device uses electrochemical nanoprobes (CdSNP-AbDON) and antigen biofunctionalized magnetic μ-particles (DON-BSAMP) to detect the mycotoxin. CdSNP-AbDON are prepared by labelling the DON-specific antibodies with CdS nanoparticles (CdSNPs). Nanoparticle size and CdSNP-AbDON conjugation ratio are characterized using TEM images. The metal ions released by the CdSNP are reduced at the working electrode and read by anodic stripping voltammetry. DON can be detected in PBST buffer with an IC50 of 6.74 ± 0.19 μg L−1. The high detectability of the immunosensor developed allows detection of DON residues in 50-fold diluted wheat extracts. The limit of detection (LOD, IC90) accomplished in wheat is of 342.4 μg kg−1, which is below the maximum residue limit (MRL, 1750 μg kg−1 for unprocessed durum wheat, 750 μg kg−1 for cereals intended for direct human consumption) established by the EU for this mycotoxin. The working range is in the interval between 610 and 6210 μg kg−1. The performance of the immunosensor was compared with the ELISA assay. DON naturally contaminated wheat samples were analyzed with the immunosensor, showing acceptable recoveries. Graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are contaminants commonly found in foods and represent a worldwide threat to human health and welfare. Efforts have been undertaken to reduce mycotoxins and their toxicity, including the introduction of good agricultural practices, appropriate food processing, specific biotransformation approaches, and pursue therapeutic agents to counteract mycotoxins. Efficient and predictive tools are required for investigations on mycotoxins and their toxicodynamics, and strategies for mycotoxin reduction. Gene expression and transcriptome analysis can unravel the mode of action, transformation and combined toxicity of mycotoxins, or mycotoxin's interactions with food components including dietary therapeutics, at the cellular level and from a molecular perspective. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate endogenously and posttranscriptionally the expression of target genes and enzymes involved in physiological, disease and toxicological responses, and the metabolism of therapeutic agents. Accordingly, this review aimed to collect up‐to‐date information on (1) the regulatory role of miRNAs in mycotoxin‐initiated toxicological processes and (2) the protective role of active ingredients from plants on mycotoxin‐induced toxicity. Through such a review of published evidence, we found some common signal pathways involving miRNAs shared by these two types of biological events. This finding indicates the possibility of using miRNAs as biomarkers in assessing and controlling mycotoxins in food via cellular mechanisms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of moulds that represent a significant food safety issue and pose a risk to health and wellbeing of humans and animals, having a negative impact on economies all over the world. They can cause intoxication in animals and affect the less productive performance and nutritional value of animal feed. Also, mycotoxins may contaminate different types of food through directly and indirectly way and cause negative health effects in humans. To estimate the potential of their harmful effect it is necessary to know the terms of mycotoxins occurrence and frequency, toxicity and biotransformation in different animal species and humans, possibility of contamination prevention, and their inactivation or reduction in the case when the incidence is inevitable. The relatively small number of comparable data on the incidence of mycotoxins in feed from European countries show the necessity of systematic control and the application of validated analytical methods in their determination. This paper gives the overview of incidence of grains and feed contamination with most important and common mycotoxins and the evidenced toxic effects in animals.

Experimental in vitro studies have shown that KhZh-90 ferrocyanide-bentonite sorbent of cesium isotopes has sorption properties in relation to the T-2 toxin. Feeding chickens with feedstuffs contaminated by microscopic fungi toxins leads to a deterioration in the general condition of the poultry, manifested by a decrease in appetite, increased water intake, indigestion, redness of the conjunctiva, rumpleness, and growth retardation. Morphological changes in dead birds indicate damage to the organs of detoxification (liver), excretion (kidney), digestion (intestine), immunity (spleen), lungs, and heart. Experiments found that the KhZh-90 cesium isotopes' sorbent had positive influence on the associative mycotoxicosis in the young laying hens. The use of sorbent for chickens, when feeding them with feedstuffs contaminated by mold funghi and toxic products, leads to an increase in the viability of the poultry, and an increase in live weight gain. The KhZh-90 ferrocyanide-bentonite sorbent of cesium isotopes significantly reduced the functional and morphological manifestations of the pathological process caused by the mycotoxin association: ochratoxin A, DON, fumonisin B, zearalenone. It increased the indices of natural immunological resistance, which was expressed by an increase in the percentage of pseudoeosinophils in the leucoformula, liver detoxification, preservation of biochemical metabolic processes, increased levels of bactericidal and lysozyme activity of the blood serum and poultry survival rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The insufficient basic and clinical knowledge about invasive mold infections necessitated to review aspergillosis rodent models. The scope of this review has two major aspects. (1) It briefly summarizes Aspergillus toxicoses, the adverse effects of Aspergillus mycotoxins, the virulence factors of Aspergillus fumigatus, and how mild Aspergillus infections can turn to immunosuppressive diseases, ultimately to lethal invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. (2) The second major aspect of the review deals with earlier and recent murine models of pulmonary aspergillosis. Particular attention will be paid to the development of unified and generally applicable methods to detect, follow, and combat aspergillosis by medical treatments. Additionally, the review raises the question of responsibility regarding the application of immunosuppressive agents that initiate, contribute, and aggravate aspergillosis. Future studies of immunosuppression by chemical agents impacting aspergillosis deserve more studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To enhance the diagnosis of Staphylococcus aureus mastitis and its prospective antibiotic resistance in dairy cattle, a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay was developed for concurrent species identifycation, detection antibiotic resistant phenotypically and genotypically to penicillin (blaZ gene), gentamycin (aac(6') aph (2'')genes), and tetracycline (tetK, gene) and recognize the toxogenic patterns of S. aureus in cow's milk with recurrent clinical mastitis. Bacterial culturing was carried out on 179 bovine recurrent clinical mastitic milk samples resulted in 84 (46.9%) coagulase positive staph isolates, while 69 (38.5%) confirmed by molecular identification by PCR as S. aureus. Also some virulence factors as enterotoxin A and B (Sea and Seb) genes were determined in 7(10.1%) and 1 (1.4%) respectively in confirmed isolates. As well as determined drugs resistance and their genes. The results of antimicrobial susceptibility tests showed 100%. 43.5% and 58% resistance for penicillin, gentamycin and tetracycline respectively. While genotypically were 100%, 40.6% and 53.6% for (blaZ, aac (6') aph (2'') and tetK, respectively. This study reports the presence of multidrug resistant S. aureus in recurrent clinical mastitis with highly virulent toxic genes that could be a major obstacle in the treatment and control of mastitis in dairy farms causing highly economic impacts and recommended that the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based assays to detect pathogens associated with mastitis and that it has several advantages, including rapid results and high sensitivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A one-year-old neutered female Labrador Retriever presented with twitches and subsequent generalised tonic-clonic seizure activity following ingestion of mouldy dog food. Further complicating factors were hyperthermia and metabolic acidosis. Initial emergency treatment involved seizure management, blood analysis, intravenous fluid therapy, active cooling and decontamination via gastric lavage, administration of activated charcoal and an intralipid infusion. The patient was maintained under general anaesthesia to manage the seizure activity. Post-anaesthetic management included treatment of aspiration pneumonia, physiotherapy, intravenous fluid therapy and management of an indwelling urinary catheter. The patient was discharged 4-8 h post-admission without further complication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out in order to investigate the natural occurrence of toxigenic fungi and levels of zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in the maize stored immediately after harvesting in 2016 and used for animal feed in Serbia. A total of 22 maize samples were collected from four different districts across the country: City of Belgrade (nine samples), Šumadija (eight samples), Podunavlje (four samples) and Kolubara (one sample). Toxigenic fungi were identified according to the morphological characteristics whereas the mycotoxins contamination were detected using biochemistry enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent (ELISA) assay. The tested samples were mostly infected with Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium spp., except that one sample originated from Kolubara was not contaminated with Aspergillus species. Fusarium graminearum was the most common species in the maize sample from Kolubara district (60%), F. verticillioides in the maize samples from Podunavlje (43.75%) and City of Belgrade (22.4%) districts, and Penicillium spp. in the maize samples from Šumadija district (26.38%). In the analysed maize samples the presence of Aspergillus species was low (0-1.78%). Mycotoxicological analysis revealed the presence of zearalenone (ZEA), deoxynivalenol (DON) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in all the investigated samples, except that DON and AFB1 were not recorded in the samples from Podunavlje and Kolubara districts, respectively. The investigated samples were highly contaminated with ZEA, with incidence of 100% for the samples from Šumadija, Podunavlje and Kolubara districts and 88.89% for the samples from City of Belgrade district. In addition, the samples contamination with DON was 100% and 22.2% for the samples from Šumadija, Kolubara and City of Belgrade, districts, respectively. The highest number of AFB1 positive samples was found in Šumadija district (87.5%), while in the City of Belgrade and Podunavlje districts, 55.56% and 50% AFB1 positive samples were established, respectively. Generally, remarkable infection of all the tested samples with toxigenic fungal species from Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium genera were recorded. In addition, high contamination with mycotoxins ZEA, DON and AFB1 were also recorded; nevertheless, only in one sample the level of DON exceeded the allowed legal limit (1750 μg kg-1) according to Regulation for unprocessed maize. Therefore, permanent mycological and mycotoxicological analyses of maize grain are necessary for risk assessment of fungal and mycotoxin contamination throughout the food chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wister rats were given feed contaminated with mycotoxins T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON), either alone or in combination, at the maximum permissible dose levels. The accumulation of class G antibodies was studied by using indirect ELISA test involving the introduction of the model allergen. The study revealed that, in general, patterns of frequency and severity of the active anaphylactic shock did not vary significantly in animals from experimental groups and the control. Ataxia, cyanosis, and hind limb paresis were observed as signs of anaphylaxis. Some of the animals had diarrhoea. No lethal outcomes were recorded. An increase in sensitization due to specific antigen was found in the experimental groups. Compared to the control groups. The maximum sensitization occurred in the group of animals which received T-2 toxin in combination with DON. Consequently, there is an increase in the allergizing effect of the model allergen ovalbumin. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most organisms, galactose is metabolized via the Leloir pathway, which is conserved from bacteria to mammals. Utilization of galactose requires a close interplay of the metabolic enzymes, as misregulation or malfunction of individual components can lead to the accumulation of toxic intermediate compounds. For the phytopathogenic basidiomycete Ustilago maydis , galactose is toxic for wildtype strains, i.e. leads to growth repression despite the presence of favorable carbon sources as sucrose. The galactose sensitivity can be relieved by two independent modifications: (1) by disruption of Hxt1, which we identify as the major transporter for galactose, and (2) by a point mutation in the gene encoding the galactokinase Gal1, the first enzyme of the Leloir pathway. The mutation in gal1(Y67F) leads to reduced enzymatic activity of Gal1 and thus may limit the formation of putatively toxic galactose-1-phosphate. However, systematic deletions and double deletions of different genes involved in galactose metabolism point to a minor role of galactose-1-phosphate in galactose toxicity. Our results show that molecular triggers for galactose toxicity in U. maydis differ from yeast and mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In developed market economies, control of mycotoxin exposure in the general population is achieved by legislated regulations governing maximum permitted levels. Such regulations are widely enforced to prevent outbreaks of overt mycotoxicoses. In developing countries, particularly in Africa, the situation is reversed, and individual mycotoxin exposures can be high, especially in rural communities reliant on subsistence or small-holder farming and local markets. Besides the effects of chronic mycotoxin exposure, Africa in recent years has experienced outbreaks of acute toxicity, such as aflatoxicosis. Recognizing and handling mycotoxin-induced health crises requires a range of responses, many of which rely on the provision and availability of fit-for-purpose analytical methods. Although regional laboratories may be able to provide support, rapid responses require in-field test kits reliant on antibody technologies. The future development of aptamers into test systems may be an important component of these analytical responses, as they provide important advantages in terms of stability, shelf-life, and low production costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raw ingredients of pet food are often contaminated with mycotoxins. This is a serious health problem to pets and causes emotional and economical stress to the pet owners. The aim of this study was to determine the immunotoxicity of the most common mycotoxins (aflatoxin, fumonisin, ochratoxin A and zearalenone) by examining 20 samples of extruded dry dog food found on the South African market [10 samples from standard grocery store lines (SB), 10 from premium veterinarian lines (PB)]. Pelleted dog food was subjected to extraction protocols optimized for the above mentioned mycotoxins. Dog lymphocytes were treated with the extracts (24 h incubation and final concentration 40 μg/ml) to determine cell viability, mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, and markers of cell death using spectrophotometry, luminometry and flow cytometry. Malondialdehyde, a marker of oxidative stress showed no significant difference between SB and PB, however, GSH was significantly depleted in SB extract treatments. Markers of apoptosis (phosphatidylserine externalization) and necrosis (propidium iodide incorporation) were elevated in both food lines when compared to untreated control cells, interestingly SB extracts were significantly higher than PB. We also observed decreased ATP levels and increased mitochondrial depolarization in cells treated with both lines of feed with SB showing the greatest differences when compared to the control. This study provides evidence that irrespective of price, quality or marketing channels, pet foods present a high risk of mycotoxin contamination. Though in this study PB fared better than SB in regards to cell toxicity, there is a multitude of other factors that need to be studied which may have an influence on other negative outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate animals to humans and vice versa. The list of zoonotic fungal agents is limited but some species, like Microsporum canis and Sporothrix brasiliensis from cats, have a strong public health impact. Mycotoxins are defined as the chemicals of fungal origin being toxic for warm-blooded vertebrates. Intoxications by aflatoxins and ochratoxins represent a threat for both human and animal health. Resistance to antifungals can occur in different animal species that receive these drugs, although the true epidemiology of resistance in animals is unknown, and options to treat infections caused by resistant infections are limited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Mortality in a broiler chicken farm was investigated for identifying the cause of mortality. Materials and Methods: A broiler farm with a population of 16000 succumbed to a disease outbreak. Clinical signs, vaccination history and mortality, were recorded. Necropsy examination and microscopic examination were carried out along with toxicological and molecular studies. Results: The clinical signs in the affected broiler birds were of non-specific nature with a total mortality of 26.39%. Postmortem examination and microscopical findings revealed hepatitis with basophilic intranuclear inclusion, splenitis, myocarditis, and nephritis. Glomerulonephritis was the prominent renal pathology recorded in this study. Polymerase chain reaction test confirmed the presence of fowl adenovirus (FAdV) genome in the target organs, and toxicological examination by thin-layer chromatography revealed the presence of a toxic level of citrinin in the feed samples. Conclusion: Based on various diagnostic investigations, the mortality in the flock was attributed to inclusion body hepatitis (IBH) complicated with citrinin mycotoxicosis. Thus, apart from liver pathology which occurs in a classical IBH cases, glomerulonephritis too occurs which are also a prominent finding which pathologists often miss. Thus, kidneys should also be examined histologically to assess the microscopic tissue alterations in poultry suspected for IBH along with a mycotoxicological analysis of feed. This will definitely throw light on the synergistic pathology elicited and exhibited by FAdV and mycotoxins in the poultry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citrinin (CTN) and ochratoxin A (OTA) can be present as co-contaminants in cereals, foods and feed commodities, and can affect human health. Metabolism-dependent toxicity of these two mycotoxins, separately as well as in combination, is not yet understood. To fill this gap we adopted integrated discrete multiple organ co-culture (IdMOC) technique, which obviates animal experiments from the perspectives of species difference as well as animal welfare concerns. IdMOC facilitates co-culture of a metabolically competent cell (HepG2) and a metabolically incompetent cell (3T3) that are physically separated but provides for extracellular product(s) from one cell to interact with the other. After ascertaining that HepG2 is metabolically competent and 3T3 is not, adopting luciferin-IPA metabolism assay, CTN and OTA were tested separately and in combination in the co-culture set-up, when both proved to be metabolism-dependent cytotoxic agents. Hepatocytes metabolize CTN into a diffusible product that is cytotoxic to 3T3 cells but the cytotoxicity of OTA appears to be limited to the hepatocytes, i.e. , local acting. As a combination at a concentration of 20% of IC 50 of each, CTN forms a reactive metabolite that diffuses out of HepG2 to cause cytotoxicity to 3T3 cells synergistically with OTA parent molecule. The CYP isoenzymes involved in the metabolism OTA and CTN were identified adopting in silico methods which indicated that OTA and CTN can bind CYP proteins at specific sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To identify predominant isolates for potential use as biocontrol agents, Aspergillus flavus isolates collected from soils of almond, pistachio and fig orchard in the Central Valley of California were tested for their membership to 16 atoxigenic vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs), including YV36, the VCG to which AF36, an atoxigenic isolate commercialized in the United States as biopesticide, belongs. A surprisingly large proportion of isolates belonged to YV36 (13.3%, 7.2% and 6.6% of the total almond, pistachio and fig populations, respectively), while the percentage of isolates belonging to the other 15 VCGs ranged from 0% to 2.3%. In order to gain a better insight into the structure and diversity of atoxigenic A . flavus populations and to further identify predominant isolates, seventeen SSR markers were then used to genetically characterize AF36, the 15 type-isolates of the VCGs and 342 atoxigenic isolates of the almond population. There was considerable genetic diversity among isolates with a lack of differentiation among micro-geographical regions or years. Since isolates sharing identical SSR profiles from distinct orchards were rare, we separated them into groups of at least 3 closely-related isolates from distinct orchards that shared identical alleles for at least 15 out of the 17 loci. This led to the identification of 15 groups comprising up to 24 closely-related isolates. The group which contained the largest number of isolates were members of YV36 while five groups were also found to be members of our studied atoxigenic VCGs. These results suggest that these 15 groups, and AF36 in particular, are well adapted to various environmental conditions in California and to tree crops and, as such, are good candidates for use as biocontrol agents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design of novel efficient antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) faces several issues, such as cost of synthesis, proteolytic stability or cytotoxicity. The identification of key determinants involved in the activity of AMPs, such as cationicity and amphipathicity, allowed the synthesis of short peptides with optimized properties. An ultrashort peptide made of the sequence H-Orn-Orn-Trp-Trp-NH2 (O3TR) showed antifungal activity against several contaminants from food products. This peptide inhibited the growth of the filamentous fungi Fusarium culmorum , Penicillium expansum and Aspergillus niger within a range of concentration of 12.5–50 μg/ml. In addition, O3TR inhibited the growth of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Zygosaccharomyces bailii , Zygosaccharomyces rouxii , Debaryomyces hansenii and Kluyveromyces lactis within the range 12.5–50 μg/ml. A derivative peptide, called C12O3TR, made by the addition of lauric acid at the N-terminus of O3TR was 2- to 8-fold more active than O3TR against every species. In addition to the inhibition of conidial germination, O3TR and C12O3TR killed F. culmorum hyphae at 100 and 50 μg/ml respectively. The MIC of the two peptides against F. culmorum and Z. bailii after heat treatment at 100°C for 60 min and within the pH range 3–10, were not changed. However, the activity of O3TR against F.culmorum and Z. bailii was strongly reduced in salt solutions, whereas the lauric acid peptide kept its antifungal activity and resistance to proteolytic digestion. The conjugation with lauric acid reduced the random coiled structure and increased the α-helical content of O3TR. After conjugation with the dye tetramethylrhodamine (TMR), both peptides entered F. culmorum spores. They also both induced permeabilization of F. culmorum hyphae but only C12O3TR permeabilized Z. bailii membrane. In contrast to the lipopeptide, O3TR did not show haemolytic or cytotoxic activity when applied at the concentrations that exhibited antifungal potency. The two peptides were challenged against a yeast cocktail of S. cerevisiae and Z. bailii , and A. niger in different commercial beverages. After 7 days, O3TR was able to inhibit the yeast cocktail in a commercial lager and carbonated drink. Due to its antifungal potency, high stability and low cytotoxicity, the tetrapeptide could represent a promising starting point of a novel food preservative. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]