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Recent models of personality development have emphasized the role of the environment in terms of selection and socialization effects and their interaction. Our study provides partial evidence for these models and, crucially, extends these models by adding a person variable: Core beliefs, which are defined as mental representations of experiences that individuals have while pursuing need-fulfilling goals. Specifically, we report results from a longitudinal investigation of the development of trait greed across time. Based on data from the German Personality Panel, we analyzed data on 1,965 young adults on up to 4 occasions, spanning a period of more than 3 years. According to our results, negative core beliefs that have so far been proposed only in the clinical literature (e.g., being unloved or being insecure) contributed to the development of trait greed, indicating that striving for material goals might be a substitute for unmet needs in the past. Additionally, greedy individuals more often self-selected themselves into business-related environments, which presumably allow them to fulfill their greed-related need to earn a lot of money. Our results expose important mechanisms for trait greed development. Regarding personality development in general, core beliefs were identified as an important variable for future theory building. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In response to recent calls to incorporate Implicit Trait Policies (ITPs) into personality research, the current study examined the construct-related validity of ITP measures. ITPs are defined as implicit beliefs about the effectiveness of behaviors that reflect a certain trait. They are assessed by utilizing the methodology of Situational Judgment Tests. We empirically examined (N = 339) several underlying key assumptions of ITP theory, including trait-specificity, the relation to personality traits, their context-independence, and the relation to general domain knowledge. Overall, our results showed little support for these assumptions. Although we found some confirmation for expected correlations between ITPs and personality traits, most of the observed variance in ITP measures was either method-specific or due to measurement error. We conclude that the herein examined ITP measures lack construct-related validity and discuss implications for ITP theory and assessment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Costly punishment describes decisions of an interaction partner to punish an opponent for violating rules of fairness at the expense of personal costs. Here, we extend the interaction process by investigating the impact of a socio-emotional reaction of the opponent in response to the punishment that indicates whether punishment was successful or not. In a modified Ultimatum game, emotional facial expressions of the proposer in response to the decision of the responder served as feedback stimuli. We found that both honored reward following acceptance of an offer (smiling compared to neutral facial expression) and successful punishment (sad compared to neutral facial expression) elicited a reward positivity, indicating that punishment was the intended outcome. By comparing the pattern of results with a probabilistic learning task, we show that the reward positivity on sad facial expressions was specific for the context of costly punishment. Additionally, acceptance rates on a trial-by-trial basis were altered according to P3 amplitudes in response to the emotional facial reaction of the proposer. Our results are in line with the concept of costly punishment as an intentional act following norm-violating behavior. Socio-emotional stimuli have an important influence on the perception and behavior in economic bargaining. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cognitive ability and curiosity are significant predictors of academic achievement; yet the processes underlying these relations are not well understood. I drew on ideas from the environmental enrichment hypothesis and the differential preservation hypothesis and hypothesized that epistemic behavior acts as a mediator. Longitudinal data were collected from 1964 individuals in three waves, spanning five years: cognitive ability and curiosity were assessed at time 1; epistemic behavior at time 2; at time 3, grade point average and highest degree of both secondary and tertiary academic education (if applicable) were obtained retrospectively via self-report. I found expected bivariate relations between all study variables, including a significant relation between cognitive ability and curiosity and significant relations of both of these variables with secondary academic performance. Epistemic behavior was related to curiosity and academic performance but, at odds with the hypothesis, did not mediate the relation between cognitive and personality variables and academic performance. It is concluded that the process underlying the behavioral consequences of cognitive ability and curiosity is not environmental enrichment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emotional feedback is a crucial part of social interaction, since it may indicate motivations, intentions, and thus, the future behavior of interaction partners. Nowadays, social interaction has been enriched by artificial emotional feedback provided by emojis, which are the means of transporting emotions in mobile messengers. In this study, we examined the influence of emotional feedback by emojis compared to real faces on decision-making and neural processing. We modified the ultimatum game by including proposers represented both by emojis and human faces who reacted specifically toward acceptance or rejection of an offer. We show that proposers who reward acceptance with a smile cause the highest acceptance rates. Interestingly, acceptance rates did not differ between proposers represented by humans compared to emojis. Regarding electrophysiology, emojis evoked more negative N170 and N2 brain potentials compared to human faces both during a mere presentation and as feedback stimuli. Proposers that showed emotional facial expressions evoked larger N170 amplitudes as compared to neutral expressions. Especially the proposers represented by emojis evoked larger P3 amplitudes as feedback stimuli compared to human facial expressions. The comparison of emoji proposers with real-face proposers provides new insight into how relevant social cues influence behavior and its neural underpinnings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A crucial aspect of social decision-making is the ability to learn from the outcomes of preceding decisions. In particular, learning might be influenced by the expectedness of feedback and its valence. Expectedness has largely been operationalized as the frequency of stimulus occurrence and not in terms of its social context. Therefore, we investigated the influence of socially unexpected feedback, i.e., smiling upon adverse events, on behavioral and neural responses. We used a modified version of the ultimatum game, a commonly used paradigm for economic decision-making, by implementing different proposer identities with a distinct reaction pattern towards accepted and rejected monetary offers. We could show that an identity, who reacted with a smile towards rejected offers, evoked lower acceptance rates compared to identities, who reward acceptance with a smile. Electrophysiological correlates indicate N170 effects for emotional identities compared to a neutral control identity. Regarding FRN and P3 brain potentials, we detected a particular function of the smiling face when used as a socially unexpected, negative feedback stimulus. Hence, individuals seek an unexpected smile despite the associated monetary loss, which is accompanied by distinct neural patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Altruistic punishment is the attempt to penalize deviant behavior of another person even though it is accompanied by personal costs. Here, we investigated the influence of the reaction on the socioemotional level of the other person following altruistic punishment behavior on future decision making and neural responses. We used a modified ultimatum game, which included an emotional facial feedback of the proposer following the decision of the participant. We found higher acceptance rates for proposers showing a smile upon acceptance or a sad face upon rejection of an offer, compared to proposers showing a neutral facial expression. On the neural level, we found a reversed N2 effect for negative emotional faces in the context of altruistic punishment, compared to a control condition. Specifically, when following the rejection of an unfair offer, negative emotional faces showed a reward‐like positivity that might signal successful altruistic punishment. In addition, differential effects for P3 amplitudes might signal the subjective importance of a desired outcome. Our results are in line with the interpretation that rejection of unfair offers in the ultimatum game is due to intended altruistic punishment. Social cues may exhibit reward‐like properties when indicating successful altruistic punishment and can influence subsequent decision making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The financial crisis in 2008 and 2009 has sparked considerable interest among researchers in individual differences in greed. Recently, five scales have been independently developed to assess the construct of trait greed. Definitions of greed underlying these scales have a lot in common, but also deviate regarding some important aspects. In the current study, we investigated the convergent validity of these scales. We found that, despite the conceptual differences, these scales converged on a common latent factor. Moreover, evidence regarding reliability, construct- and criterion-related validity support the notion that the five scales are largely similar and, in general, well suited to assess the targeted construct. We discuss how the conceptual differences between the definitions might reveal insights into the nature of the construct of greed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Task motivation depends on what we did before. A recent theory differentiates between tasks that we want to do and tasks that we have to do. After a have-to task, motivation shifts towards a want-to task. We measured this shift of motivation via brain responses to monetary feedback in a risk game that was used as want-to task in our study. We tested 20 healthy participants that were about 28 years old in a within-subjects design. Participants worked on a Stroop task (have-to task) or an easier version of the Stroop task as a control condition and played a risk game afterwards (want-to task). After the Stroop task, brain responses to monetary feedback in the risk game were larger compared to the easier control task, especially for feedback indicating higher monetary rewards. We conclude that higher amplitudes of feedback-related brain responses in the risk game reflect the shift of motivation after a have-to task towards a want-to task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greed is a variable which might explain and predict a range of real-life criteria. Although often consulted as explanation in the public media, related scientific research has only recently begun. We approached greed from a personality psychology perspective regarding its nomological net and the prediction of theoretically related criteria. We found that a wide array of indicators, including behavior in economic games and risk games, as well as self-reported money investment and aimed at income, can be meaningfully predicted by dispositional greed, over and above the Big Five. Additionally, we found that dispositional greed is substantially related to psychopathy. According to our results, dispositional greed is an important variable which might explain unique variance with regard to theoretically related behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates how different emotions can alter social bargaining behavior. An important paradigm to study social bargaining is the Ultimatum Game. There, a proposer gets a pot of money and has to offer part of it to a responder. If the responder accepts, both players get the money as proposed by the proposer. If he rejects, none of the players gets anything. Rational choice models would predict that responders accept all offers above 0. However, evidence shows that responders typically reject a large proportion of all unfair offers. We analyzed participants’ behavior when they played the Ultimatum Game as responders and simultaneously collected electroencephalogram data in order to quantify the feedback-related negativity and P3b components. We induced state affect (momentarily emotions unrelated to the task) via short movie clips and measured trait affect (longer-lasting emotional dispositions) via questionnaires. State happiness led to increased acceptance rates of very unfair offers. Regarding neurophysiology, we found that unfair offers elicited larger feedback-related negativity amplitudes than fair offers. Additionally, an interaction of state and trait affect occurred: high trait negative affect (subsuming a variety of aversive mood states) led to increased feedback-related negativity amplitudes when participants were in an angry mood, but not if they currently experienced fear or happiness. We discuss that increased rumination might be responsible for this result, which might not occur, however, when people experience happiness or fear. Apart from that, we found that fair offers elicited larger P3b components than unfair offers, which might reflect increased pleasure in response to fair offers. Moreover, high trait negative affect was associated with decreased P3b amplitudes, potentially reflecting decreased motivation to engage in activities. We discuss implications of our results in the light of theories and research on depression and anxiety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates how the construct intellect, according to the Theoretical Intellect Framework (TIF), predicts creativity. The TIF is a theoretical model describing the structure of the construct intellect, a sub-dimension of the Big Five domain openness to experience. People (N = 2709) from two sub-samples (undergraduate students and Amazon MTurkers) completed one of three creativity tasks (self-reported, remote associates, or rated photo caption) and the Intellect Scale. The results support hypotheses derived from the TIF, as the operation Create, rather than the operations Think or Learn, significantly and in some cases uniquely predicted the self-reported creativity indicators. Creativity indicators with a strong cognitive load (remote associates test and rated photo caption), however, were predicted by the operation Think. Results are discussed with regards to the nomological net of the operation Create and the construct validity of the creativity assessments. We provide implications for applied purposes and call for further examination of the TIF with additional creativity measures. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We applied trait activation theory to investigate the situational properties that moderate the correlation of intellect, a sub-dimension of the Big Five factor openness to experience, with work-related criteria. We collected data from a sample of 185 employees from diverse organizations and positions. Results from moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed that perceived situational properties at the task level moderated the correlation between intellect and job performance. Additionally, correlations between intellect and organizational commitment were moderated at task and organizational levels. This study shows how trait activation theory can be utilized to investigate the situational properties moderating the correlation of personality variables with external criteria. Implications for applied purposes are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated whether greed would predict risky decision-making and recorded neural responses during a monetary gambling task using the electroencephalogram. We found that individuals high in trait-greed took higher risks to maximize monetary outcome. Furthermore, this relation was moderated by state-greed; specifically, trait-greed had a stronger impact on risky decision-making when activated by situational characteristics. On the neural level, greedy individuals showed a specific response to favorable and unfavorable outcomes. Specifically, they had a reduced feedback-related negativity-difference score to these events, indicating that they might have difficulty in learning from experience, especially from mistakes and negative feedback. It is concluded that greed may explain risky and reckless behavior in diverse settings, such as investment banking, and may account for phenomena such as stock market bubbles. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Previous research has shown that receiving an unfair monetary offer in economic bargaining elicits also-called feedback negativity (FN). This scalp-recorded brain potential probably reflects a bad-vs-good evaluation in the medial frontal cortex and has been linked to fundamental processes of reinforcement learning. In the present study, we investigated whether the evaluative mechanism indexed by the FN is also involved in learning who is an unfair vs fair bargaining partner. An electroencephalogram was recorded while participants completed a computerized version of the Ultimatum Game, repeatedly receiving fair or unfair monetary offers from alleged other participants. Some of these proposers were either always fair or always unfair in their offers. In each trial, participants first saw a portrait picture of the respective proposer before the monetary offer was presented. Therefore, the faces could be used as predictive cues for the fairness of the pending offers. We found that not only unfair offers themselves induced a FN, but also (over the task) faces of unfair proposers. Thus, when interaction partners repeatedly behave in an unfair way, their faces acquire a negative valence, which manifests in a basal neural mechanism of bad-vs-good evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Facial expressions are an important aspect of social interaction, conveying not only information regarding emotional states, but also regarding intentions, personality, and complex social characteristics. The present research investigates how a smiling, compared to a nonsmiling, expression impacts decision making and underlying cognitive and emotional processes in economic bargaining. Our results using the ultimatum game show that facial expressions have an impact on decision making as well as the feedback-related negativity following the offer. Furthermore, a moderating effect of sex on decision making was observed, with differential effects of facial expressions from male compared to female proposers. It is concluded that predictions of bargaining behavior must account for aspects of social interactions as well as sex effects to obtain more precise estimates of behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Large and heterogeneous sample of 1326 participants. [•] First study to investigate need for cognition in relation to the ultimatum game. [•] Actual money as payout in the ultimatum game. [•] Surprisingly, higher rejection rates for two indicators of rational decision-making. [•] Rational (accept) vs. emotional (reject) interpretation falls short. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Theories of an optimal level of arousal suggest that underaroused humans seek stimulation to enhance their arousal. One way to increase arousal is risky behavior during gambling. In the current study, we show that the lower the participants' resting arousal, measured via resting heart rate, the riskier they acted in a gamble and the faster they responded, indicating less impulse control. Participants with low resting heart rate also perceived the risk options in the gamble as less arousing and less risky compared to participants with higher resting heart rate. Partial correlations show that resting heart rate, risk behavior, and ratings were interrelated. After physical exercise, participants tended to behave less risky in the gamble compared to a control condition without exercise. Thus, both trait and state arousal effects indicate an inverse relationship of arousal and risky behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In social interaction, the facial expression of an opponent contains information that may influence the interaction. We asked whether facial expression affects decision-making in the ultimatum game. In this two-person game, the proposer divides a sum of money into two parts, one for each player, and then the responder decides whether to accept the offer or reject it. Rejection means that neither player gets any money. Results of a large-sample study support our hypothesis that offers from proposers with a smiling facial expression are more often accepted, compared to a neutral facial expression. Moreover, we found lower acceptance rates for offers from proposers with an angry facial expression. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article develops a theoretical framework for the structure of personality traits related to intellectual achievements. We postulate a 2-dimensional model, differentiating between 2 processes (Seek and Conquer) and 3 operations (Think, Learn, and Create). The framework was operaticnalized by a newly developed measure, which was validated based on 2 samples. Subsequently, in 3 studies (overall N = 1,478), the 2-dimensional structure of the Intellect framework was generally supported. Additionally, subdimensions of the Intellect framework specifically predicted conceptually related criteria, including scholastic performance, vocational interest, and leisure activities. Furthermore, results from multidimensional scaling and higher order confirmatory factor analyses show that the framework allows for the incorporation of several constructs that have been proposed on different theoretical backgrounds, such as need for cognition, typical intellectual engagement, curiosity, intrinsic motivation, goal orientation, and openness to ideas. It is concluded that based on the Intellect framework, these constructs, which have been researched separately in the literature, can be meaningfully integrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The feedback negativity ( FN) has been repeatedly linked to expectancies about decision outcomes. Sequential outcome order is likely to influence such expectancies but has been widely disregarded. We therefore investigated whether the three-trial order of decision outcomes in a gambling task influences the FN as well as the P200 and P300. All three deflections were not only influenced by the outcome valence of the current trial but also by the outcomes of the two preceding trials. In detail, the FN and P300 to any current trial outcome were largest when the outcomes in the two preceding trials had an opposite valence. The P200 was highest in the context of two directly preceding wins, indicating that it may reflect representations of local outcome history. Our findings demonstrate that neural systems involved in decision outcome processing dynamically and continuously integrate the local outcome history for the evaluation of present outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent meta-analyses (e.g. ) found openness to experience, a factor in the five-factor model of personality, to be uncorrelated with job performance. We argue that, among others, insignificant validity is due to the broad and heterogeneous nature of the construct. In line with our hypotheses, we found internal structure of openness to be multidimensional. Further analyses on subdimensional and facet level revealed large differences in criterion- and construct-related validity. It could be demonstrated that a subdimension labeled epistemic curiosity and, especially, the facet openness to ideas, which includes aspects like curiosity, flexibility, willingness to learn, and creativity, are highly relevant for work-related criteria and so far understudied in organizational research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Epistemic curiosity, the “desire for knowledge that motivates individuals to learn new ideas, eliminate information-gaps, and solve intellectual problems” (), has been identified as a crucial variable in different areas and stages of life. However, several constructs have been proposed that might be highly similar regarding construct domain, but are based on different theoretical positions and were investigated under different labels. Three of these constructs, namely need for cognition, typical intellectual engagement, and openness for ideas, were investigated regarding discriminant validity. Based on two studies with 395 and 191 participants, no evidence of discriminant validity could be found. Especially, correlations within several measures of curiosity, interpreted as convergent validity, had mean correlations of .60 and .59 for the two studies, respectively. Correlations between curiosity measures and the related constructs need for cognition, typical intellectual engagement, and openness for ideas, interpreted as discriminant validity, were virtually identical (.59 and .57, respectively). Furthermore, exploratory factor analysis indicated that one factor explained the variance of the investigated constructs reasonably well. It is concluded that integrating the body of research that has been built around these constructs might stimulate future research on epistemic curiosity. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Previous EEG research only investigated one stage ultimatum games (UGs). We investigated the influence of a second bargaining stage in an UG concerning behavioral responses, electro‐cortical correlates and their moderations by the traits altruism, anger, anxiety, and greed in 92 participants. We found that an additional stage led to more rejection in the 2‐stage UG (2SUG) and that increasing offers in the second stage compared to the first stage led to more acceptance. The FRN during a trial was linked to expectance evaluation concerning the fairness of the offers, while midfrontal theta was a marker for the needed cognitive control to overcome the respective default behavioral pattern. The FRN responses to unfair offers were more negative for either low or high altruism in the UG, while high trait anxiety led to more negative FRN responses in the first stage of 2SUG, indicating higher sensitivity to unfairness. Accordingly, the mean FRN response, representing the trait‐like general electrocortical reactivity to unfairness, predicted rejection in the first stage of 2SUG. Additionally, we found that high trait anger led to more rejections for unfair offer in 2SUG in general, while trait altruism led to more rejection of unimproving unfair offers in the second stage of 2SUG. In contrast, trait anxiety led to more acceptance in the second stage of 2SUG, while trait greed even led to more acceptance if the offer was worse than in the stage before. These findings suggest, that 2SUG creates a trait activation situation compared to the UG. Previous EEG research considered one stage ultimatum games (UG). We compared a 2‐stage Ultimatum Game (2SUG) with UG. We found more initial rejection, acceptance for increasing offers as well as more pronounced trait influence on behavior and electrophysiology in 2SUG. The FRN during trials was linked to expectancy (fairness) evaluation, while midfrontal theta (N3) expressed cognitive control to overcome default behavior. Also, trait‐like more negative FRN amplitudes indicated sensitivity for unfairness by predicting higher rejection rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Misophonia is a clinical syndrome which is characterized by intense emotional and physical reactions to idiosyncratic sounds. However, its psychometric measurement is still in the early stages. This study describes the optimization of a self-report instrument, the Berlin Misophonia Questionnaire (BMQ), and addresses its strengths in comparison to existing psychometric measures. This new measure integrates contemporary empirical findings and is based on the latest criteria of misophonia. A cross-sectional online study was conducted using data of 952 affected as well as non-affected individuals. The final BMQ-R consists of 77 items in 21 scales, which were selected using a probabilistic item selection algorithm (Ant Colony Optimization). The results of confirmatory factor analyses, the assessment of reliability, and an extensive construct validation procedure supported the reliability and validity of the developed scales. One outstanding strength of the BMQ-R is its comprehensive measurement of misophonic emotional and physical responses. The instrument further allows for distinguishing between behavioral, cognitive, and emotional dysregulation; the measurement of clinical insight and significance; as well as discerning reactive and anticipating avoidance strategies. Our work offers several improvements to the measurement of misophonia by providing a reliable and valid multidimensional diagnostical instrument. In line with the scientific consensus on defining misophonia, the BMQ-R allows to formally recognize individuals with misophonia and so to compare findings of future studies. Undoubtedly, this measure fills a research gap, which we hope will facilitate the investigation of causes and treatment of misophonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The unified theory of motivation, personality and development by Carol S. Dweck provides a comprehensive account of the processes that underly the development of personality traits. A key role in this process are attributed to beliefs which are conceptualized as mental representations of experiences that individuals make while pursuing need-fulfilling goals. In the present study, I tested several hypotheses regarding the mediating role of a central belief, the belief about control, with regards to the relation between needs and traits. Based on a sample of 105 participants (mean age 31 years, 59% female) I found support for four out of six hypotheses, generally supporting the notion that beliefs might be a key concept for better understanding the processes underlying personality traits. Unlabelled Image • Tests predictions from the unified theory of motivation, personality & development • Found support for a variable mediating the relation between needs and personality • Beliefs provide a better understanding of the process underlying personality traits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We echo Lievens's call to incorporate measures developed in applied settings as valuable instruments for personality researchers. We highlight some striking findings that have challenged central assumptions about these measures and call for joint research efforts of personality and industrial and organizational psychologists to gain better understanding of what these methods actually measure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depending on the point of view, conceptions of greed range from being a desirable and inevitable feature of a well-regulated, well-balanced economy to the root of all evil - radix omnium malorum avaritia (Tim 6.10). Regarding the latter, it has been proposed that greedy individuals strive for obtaining desired goods at all costs. Here, we show that trait greed predicts selfish economic decisions that come at the expense of others in a resource dilemma. This effect was amplified when individuals strived for obtaining real money, as compared to points, and when their revenue was at the expense of another person, as compared to a computer. On the neural level, we show that individuals high, compared to low in trait greed showed a characteristic signature in the EEG, a reduced P3 effect to positive, compared to negative feedback, indicating that they may have a lack of sensitivity to adjust behavior according to positive and negative stimuli from the environment. Brain-behavior relations further confirmed this lack of sensitivity to behavior adjustment as a potential underlying neuro-cognitive mechanism which explains selfish and reckless behavior that may come at the expense of others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hundreds of ERP studies have reported a midfrontal negativegoing amplitude shift following negative compared with positive action outcomes. This feedback-related negativity (FRN) effect is typically thought to reflect an early and binary mechanism of action evaluation in the posterior midcingulate cortex. However, in prior research on the FRN effect, the instantaneous value and the long-term value of action outcomes have been perfectly confounded. That is, instantaneously positive outcomes were generally consistent with task goals, whereas instantaneously negative outcomes were inconsistent with task goals. In this study, we disentangled these two outcome aspects in two experiments. Our results reveal an interaction of instantaneous and long-term outcome values. More precisely, our findings strongly suggest that the FRN effect is mainly driven by a reward positivity, which is evoked only by outcomes that possess an instantaneously positive value and also help the organism to reach its long-term goals. These findings add to a recent literature according to which the posterior midcingulate cortex acts as a hierarchical reinforcement learning system and suggest that this system integrates instant and long-term action-outcome values. This, in turn, might be crucial for learning optimal behavioral strategies in a given setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many daily situations, the consequences of our actions are predicted by cues that are often social in nature. For instance, seeing the face of an evaluator (e.g., a supervisor at work) may activate certain evaluative expectancies, depending on the history of prior encounters with that particular person. We investigated how such face-induced expectancies influence neurocognitive functions of performance monitoring. We recorded an electroencephalogram while participants completed a time-estimation task, during which they received performance feedback from a strict and a lenient evaluator. During each trial, participants first saw the evaluator's face before performing the task and, finally, receiving feedback. Therefore, faces could be used as predictive cues for the upcoming evaluation. We analyzed electrocortical signatures of performance monitoring at the stages of cue processing, task performance, and feedback reception. Our results indicate that, at the cue stage, seeing the strict evaluator's face results in an anticipatory preparation of fronto-medial monitoring mechanisms, as reflected by a sustained negative-going amplitude shift (i.e., the contingent negative variation). At the performance stage, face-induced expectancies of a strict evaluation rule led to increases of early performance monitoring signals (i.e., frontal-midline theta power). At the final stage of feedback reception, violations of outcome expectancies differentially affected the feedback-related negativity and frontal-midline theta power, pointing to a functional dissociation between these signatures. Altogether, our results indicate that evaluative expectancies induced by face-cues lead to adjustments of internal performance monitoring mechanisms at various stages of task processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationships between Interest (I) and Deprivation (D) type epistemic curiosity (EC) and self-regulation were evaluated in two studies. In Study 1 (Italians, N = 151), I-type EC correlated positively with positive outcome-expectancies and risk-taking, but negatively with thinking about negative outcomes. D-type EC correlated positively with emotional restraint, thoughtful evaluation, and concern over negative outcomes and potential risks. In Study 2 (Americans, N = 218; Germans, N = 56), I-type EC correlated positively with behavioral activation, especially fun seeking, whereas D-type correlated negatively with fun seeking. Neither EC scale correlated significantly with behavioral inhibition. These findings suggest that I-type EC corresponds to fun, carefree and optimistic approaches to learning, while D-type EC reflects greater thoughtfulness and caution regarding knowledge-search. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Explaining cognitive decline in late adulthood is a major research area. Models using personality traits as possible influential variables are rare. This study tested assumptions based on an adapted version of the Openness-Fluid-Crystallized-Intelligence (OFCI) model. The OFCI model adapted to late adulthood predicts that openness is related to the decline in fluid reasoning (Gf) through environmental enrichment. Gf should be related to the development of comprehension knowledge (Gc; investment theory). It was also assumed that Gf predicts changes in openness as suggested by the environmental success hypothesis. Finally, the OFCI model proposes that openness has an indirect influence on the decline in Gc through its effect on Gf (mediation hypothesis). Using data from the Berlin Aging Study (N = 516, 70-103 years at Tl), these predictions were tested using latent change score and latent growth curve models with indicators of each trait. The current findings and prior research support environmental enrichment and success, investment theory, and partially the mediation hypotheses. Based on a summary of all findings, the OFCI model for late adulthood is suggested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the relation between personality and learning as well as the mediating role of the trait epistemic curiosity in the context of continuing education. Data were collected from 150 medical physicians attending various training programs in Pakistan. The results indicate that conscientiousness directly positively predicts whether an individual will learn from training. The relation between conscientiousness and learning is also explained through epistemic curiosity. In addition, openness to experience also indirectly and positively affects learning through epistemic curiosity. The findings also suggest that dispositional traits that aid learning be given consideration in the hiring and training of medical physicians in Pakistan. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: The symmetry principle and the frame‐of‐reference perspective have each made contributions to improving the measurement of personality. Although each perspective is valuable in its own right, we argue that even greater improvement can be achieved through the combination of both. Therefore, the goal of the current article was to show the value of a combined lens‐model and frame‐of‐reference perspective. Method: We conducted a literature review to summarize relevant research findings that shed light on the interplay of both perspectives and developed an integrative model. Results: Based on the literature review and on theoretical grounds, we argue that a basic premise of the frame‐of‐reference literature––that personality items are open to interpretation and allow individuals to impose their own contextual framings––should be considered from a symmetry perspective. Unintended context‐specificity in items may "spread" to personality facets and domains, and thus, impact the symmetry of personality measures with other criteria. As the individuals´ frames‐of‐reference and (a)symmetric relationships are not always apparent, we term them as "hidden." Conclusions: The proposed combination of lens‐model and frame‐of‐reference perspectives provides further insights into current issues in personality research and uncovers important avenues for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Situations in SJTs did not or only marginally affect the construct-related validity of SJTs. • This study adds more evidence speaking to the perspective of SJTs as context-independent measures. • This study provides further evidence that experimental test validation provides interesting insights that go beyond correlative validation approaches. Despite the common belief that situation descriptions in SJTs are central to the measurement of targeted constructs, recent studies demonstrated that omitting situation descriptions had only minor effects on SJT performance and validity. However, these results might be due to the fact that traditional SJTs often fail to assess well-defined constructs. So, we aimed to examine the relationships between construct-driven SJT scores with and without situations and self- and peer-rated personality dimensions (N = 158). Results revealed almost no difference in construct-related validity between both versions. The conscientiousness facet emerged as the only exception, for which the SJT scores without situation descriptions yielded a significantly higher convergent correlation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Punishment in economic games has been interpreted as "altruistic." However, it was shown that punishment is related to trait anger instead of trait altruism in a third‐party dictator game if compensation is also available. Here, we investigated the influence of state anger on punishment and compensation in the third‐party dictator game. Therefore, we used movie sequences for emotional priming, including the target states anger, happy, and neutral. We measured the Feedback‐Related Negativity (FRN) and midfrontal theta band activation, to investigate an electro‐cortical correlate of the processing of fair and unfair offers. Also, we assessed single‐trial FRN and midfrontal theta band activation as a predictor for punishment and compensation. We found that punishment was linked to state anger. Midfrontal theta band activation, which has previously been linked to altruistic acts and cognitive control, predicted less punishment. Additionally, trait anger led to enhanced FRN for unfair offers. This led to the interpretation that the FRN depicts the evaluation of fairness, while midfrontal theta band activation captures an aspect of cognitive control and altruistic motivation. We conclude that we need to redefine "altruistic punishment" into "costly punishment," as no direct link of altruism and punishment is given. Additionally, midfrontal theta band activation complements the FRN and offers additional insights into complex responses and decision processes, especially as a single trial predictor. In the literature about third‐party dictator games, punishment, and compensation were considered altruistic. Here, we show that punishment is linked to trait and state anger and less midfrontal theta‐band activation indicating less cognitive control. Thus, we extend the literature and proclaim the term "costly punishment" instead of altruistic punishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research findings show that proposers make surprisingly fair offers in the ultimatum and dictator games, an observation that contradicts predictions of classical game theory. The present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study examines brain activities of proposers that contribute to fair and unfair behaviors. We hypothesized that egoistic and altruistic motives of proposers affect fairness differentially in the two games. fMRI analysis revealed that the 28% of fair offers in the present ultimatum game were related to enhanced activity in prefrontal areas, in particular, in regions involved in reward and theory of mind. This corroborates the idea that egoistic motives are primarily responsible for fair offers in this game, which we denote as strategic fairness. Fair offers in the dictator game, however, were related to increased activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex. This supports the idea that altruistic motives primarily drive fair offers in the dictator game, denoted here as altruistic fairness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Emojis are nowadays a common substitute for real facial expressions to integrate emotions in social interaction. In certain contexts, emojis possibly could also transport information beyond emotions, reflecting interindividual differences or social aspects. In this study, we investigated the influence of emojis as socioemotional feedback stimuli on behavior and neural responses in a social decision game. We modified the Ultimatum Game by including emotional feedback provided by the proposer as response to the decision of the participant as receiver. Therefore, we generated identities that differed in their feedback behavior to identify differences in the processing of emotional feedback in a positive (acceptance) versus negative (rejection) frame. Regarding offer sizes, we replicated the valence effect of feedback‐related negativity for small offer sizes evoking more negative brain potentials compared to larger ones. Further, we found an effect of affective emojis on distinct ERPs: A face‐detecting neural component (N170) was examined to be a part of the processing of emojis, which resulted in significantly more negative amplitudes in response to a sad‐looking emoji compared to smiling and neutral ones. Furthermore, P3 amplitudes indicate transmission effects from the feedback emoticons to the neural processing of different offer sizes. In contrast to previous findings, P3 responses of our subjects did not depend on the offer size, but rather by which kind of partner they were made. Since some evaluative processes did not reveal any effects, emojis seem to be less effective than real facial expressions, which convey more information that is socially meaningful. In face‐to‐face communication, information provided by facial expressions affects the social interaction itself. Nowadays, people partially transpose their ways of communication from direct conversation to messaging services. To put emphasis on the meaning of a message or to express mood, intentions, or feelings, emojis are often used. In consequence, this study aimed at investigating the influence of emojis as socioemotional feedback stimuli on behavior and neural responses in a social decision task. As a result, we found that emojis were able to influence neural processing of a certain interaction partner, whereas an impact on behavior was not found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]