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In 1992 the South African meat industry was deregulated and this led to the formation of the new Marketing of Agricultural Products Act, Act no. 47 of 1996. The Act made provisions for producers to sell animals to customers of their own choice at mutually agreed prices. Thus, producers in the informal sector took advantage of the free marketing system. The result was a substantial increase in the number of animals slaughtered in the informal sector. Unfortunately the requirements for animal identification are not always observed in this sector. Challenges faced by communal farmers which include the multipurpose roles of livestock, lack of slaughter facilities within reasonable distance and lack of access to market information make them less willing to sell their animals through the formal market. The formal market is characterised by meat inspection and carcass classification which scare away the communal farmers for fear of income loss through animal condemnation. The informal sector might not recognise the importance of formal carcass classification. There is need to direct research and development efforts to address marketing constraints faced by communal farmers, and to promote formal marketing of livestock for meat quality assurance and a fair return to the farmers. This review seeks to assess the relevance of formal classification of red meat carcasses to the informal sector, make recommendations on ways to ameliorate the undesirable effect of the classification system on the informal sector, and identify possible areas which need further research to develop the classification system in South Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated outbreaks of seemingly related abortions and orchitis which occurred in the Khomas, Omaheke and Otjozondjupa regions of Namibia from 2016 to 2018, affecting cattle, sheep and goats. Fifty-nine questionnaires were administered, and 48 were completed giving an 81.4% return. The outbreaks were limited to Namibia's east and central regions, mainly on farms rearing cattle, sheep and goats and on farms with a mixture of these species. There was no significant difference between Khomas and other regions on abortion reporting at the farm level [X 2  (1, N = 48) = 0.0002, p = 0.987851]. However, there was a significant difference in the abortions at the animal level among the three regions [X 2  (2, N = 6246) = 239.8339, p = .00001]. In addition, the proportions of abortions calculated at the animal level at each farm were significantly different when the Khomas region was compared to the other regions. Seventeen cattle sera, 35 sheep sera, 52 caprine sera, 18 bovine liver samples, one caprine liver, five aborted cattle foetuses, two cattle placentas, 18 testes (one bull, eight bucks and nine rams) and ten bull sheath scrapings were collected and tested. Histopathology, microbiology, serology, immunohistochemistry, real-time PCR and mineral analytical techniques were used to establish the aetiology of the abortion and orchitis outbreaks. The gross and histopathological findings on the 18 testicles were characteristic of chronic orchitis. In aborted foetuses, significant histopathological findings included meconium aspiration, funisitis and cardiomyopathy. Placentitis and endometritis were the primary pathologies observed in cows. The bacteria isolated from microbiological samples included Enterococcus spp. (65.5% [19/29]), Enterobacter spp. (6.9% [2/29]) and Streptococcus spp. (10.3% [3/29]), Trueperella pyogenes (3.4% [1/29]), Stenotrophomonas maltophilia (3.4% [1/29]), Staphylococcus epidermidis (3.4% [1/29]), Providencia rettgeri (3.4% [1/29]) and Acinetobacter lwoffii (3.4% [1/29]), mostly opportunistic bacteria. On mineral analysis, 28%, 33%, 83%, 33% and 17% (n = 18) of cattle livers were low in copper, zinc, manganese, selenium and iron, respectively. Twenty-three percent (12/52) of the caprine sera were positive for Brucella melitensis on the Rose Bengal and complement fixation tests. Thirty-five ovine sera were tested for B. melitensis, B. ovis and Coxiella burnetii, and the prevalence for each was 2.9% (1/35). PCR tests on foetuses were all negative for Brucella spp., Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydia spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Campylobacter fetus spp., Leptospira pathogenic strains, bovine viral diarrhoea virus, Rift Valley fever virus, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and bovine herpes virus 4 Campylobacter fetus spp. and Trichomonas foetus spp. The authors concluded that Brucella spp., Enterococcus spp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus spp., Trueperella pyogenes and Coxiella burnetii could have contributed to this outbreak. Micronutrient imbalances and pathogenic abiotic nanoparticles were also identified as possible contributors to the abortion outbreaks., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

This study retrospectively investigated the effect of breed and season on the lambing/kidding dynamics, growth performance, neonatal viability, and weaning dynamics of sheep (Damara, Dorper, and Swakara) and goats (Boer goat and Kalahari Red) at a farm in the Khomas Region of Namibia between 2004 and 2015. Litter size was dependent on breed (X 2 (12, N = 3388) = 796, p < 0.001), with twinning more frequent in Dorper sheep and Kalahari Red and Boer goats than in the Damara and Swakara sheep (p < 0.05), while triplets were more prevalent in the Dorper sheep and Kalahari Red goats (2.8% and 1.0%, respectively; p < 0.05). Distribution of birth weight categories was dependent on breed. There was a significant difference in the proportions of birth weight categories between breeds (X 2 (12, N = 3388) = 467, p < 0.001) whereby Dorper lambs were mostly born weighing below 3 kg (2.6%, p < 0.05); Boer goat kids, Kalahari Red kids, and Damara lambs were mostly born weighing 3 to < 4 kg (4.3%, 6.3% and 19.9%, respectively; p < 0.05); Swakara lambs were mostly born weighing 4 to < 5 kg (12.2%, p < 0.05), and Swakara lambs were mostly born weighing ≥ 5 kg (3.3% and 2.3%, respectively, p < 0.05). Weaning age categories were dependent on breed (X 2 (12, N = 3388) = 241, p < 0.001) whereby Dorper lambs were mostly weaned at below 3 months of age (2.8%, p < 0.05); Damara lambs were mostly weaned at 3 to < 5 months of age (12%, p < 0.05), and Boer goat kids were mostly weaned at ≥ 5 months of age (0.9%, p < 0.05). Neonatal viability was dependent on breed (X 2 (8, N = 3388) = 49.2, p < 0.001) whereby Dorper lambs were more susceptible to abortions and neonatal deaths (0.6% and 1.5%, respectively; p < 0.05) than the rest of the breeds. Breed and lambing season interacted to produce effects on the birth weight of offspring although lambing season alone did not have a significant effect on Boer goat and Kalahari Red kids' birth weights.

Regression analysis was used to evaluate teeth examination as a tool for estimating age in beef and dairy cattle at Neudamm farm, Namibia, in 2018. There was a significant difference in age (months) between the overall mean actual age (M=60, SD=4.57) and the mean estimated age (M=57, SD=4.52 months) in beef cattle; t(74) = 3.61, p<0.001. There was no significant difference between the overall mean estimated age and the mean actual age (M=42.5, SD=5.18) and (M=41.3, SD=5.21 months) in dairy cattle; t(30) = 1.45, p=0.16. There was a very strong positive relationship between the overall teeth examination-estimated age and actual age in beef cattle [r (74) = 0.98, p<0.001]. There was a very strong positive relationship between the overall teeth examination-estimated age and actual age in dairy cattle [r (30) = 0.99, p<0.001]. A very strong positive relationship was also evident between the teeth examination-estimated age and actual age in beef cattle aged 45 months and below [r (37) = 0.93, p<0.001]. There was a very strong positive relationship between the teeth examination-estimated and actual age in dairy cattle aged 45 months and below [r (20) = 0.97, p<0.001]. There was a very strong positive relationship between the teeth examination-estimated age and actual age in beef cattle aged over 45 months [r (35) = 0.93, p<0.001]. There was a very strong positive relationship between the teeth examination-estimated age and actual age in dairy cattle aged over 45 months [r (8) = 0.97, p<0.001]. It was therefore concluded that under the given conditions of the study and the range of ages and the breeds under study, age estimation through teeth examination is reliably applicable for aging cattle in general. Age estimation through teeth examination was found to be more accurate in dairy than in beef cattle.

Background and Aim: African horse sickness (AHS) is a non-contagious viral disease of horses and other equids caused by an arbovirus belonging to the Reoviridae family and genus Orbivirus . AHS is an endemic disease that is responsible for the death of a high number of horses every year in Namibia. At present, there is no information on the prevalence and distribution of AHS virus (AHSV) serotypes in the different regions of Namibia. Therefore, this survey aimed to fill this knowledge gap by investigating the AHSV seroprevalence in Namibian donkeys., Materials and Methods: A total of 260 blood samples (20 samples for each region) were randomly collected from donkeys aged between 3 and 5 years. Sera were screened for AHSV-specific immunoglobulin G antibodies using acommercial competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit and samples positive to AHSV antibodies were further tested by serum neutralization (SN) assay to evaluate the AHSV serotype-specific immune response., Results: Seroprevalence of antibodies against AHSV in Namibian donkeys was 63.5%. The AHSV prevalence was significantly higher in the northern region (64%) than in the southern region (36%). A significantly (p<0.05) higher number of donkeys had antibodies against AHSV-6 (37.8%) and AHSV-9 (37.8%). The AHSV-2, AHSV-6, and AHSV-9 prevalence were higher (p<0.05) in the northern regions compared to the southern regions. None of the donkeys in this study, however, tested positive for AHSV-8., Conclusion: Results of the current study indicate that all AHSV serotypes have either circulated previously or are circulating in Namibia except for AHSV-8. In particular, AHSV-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, and -9 serotypes have circulated or are circulating in the northern region of Namibia, while AHSV-1, -4, -5, -6, -7, and -9 have infected donkeys in the south. AHSV-9 and AHSV-6 were the most prevalent serotypes detected in donkeys in this study. SN results showed that several donkeys from Kavango East, Kavango West, and Ohangwena regions had been exposed to multiple serotypes, indicating the possibility of cocirculation of several strains in Namibia., (Copyright: © Molini, et al.)

This study analysed the demographics, spatial distribution, ownership and naming patterns of dogs and cats presented to the University of Namibia's veterinary mobile clinic for sterilisation from small underserved towns around Namibia. The proportional distribution of pets was determined based on species, sex, age, owner gender, town of origin and naming categories. Overall, 84.4% (n = 2909) of the animals presented for sterilisation were dogs and the remainder were cats (15.6%, n = 539). Of the dogs presented for sterilisation, 51.9% (n = 1509) were male and 48.1% (n = 1400) were female. In cats, 51.4% (n = 277) were male, whilst 48.6% (n = 262) were female. Overall, the majority of pets (68.2%) were presented for sterilisation from urban areas than rural areas (31.8%). About 49.8% of men and 24.2% of women that presented pets for sterilisation came from urban areas, whilst 20.1% of the women and 11.7% of the men that presented pets for sterilisation were from rural areas. Of all the pets presented for sterilisation, the majority were male-owned (64%, n = 2206). Pets were mainly presented for sterilisation at 2 years (41.1%), 2 to 4 years (32.4%) and 4 to 6 years (15.4%). The naming of pets was mainly after people (42.4%), circumstances (20.6%) and appearance (15.5%). This community engagement exercise yielded valuable demographic data indicating that pet origin, sex and species and owner gender were important factors in determining the voluntary presentation of pets for sterilisation in the study area.

Five samples were collected from four suspected outbreaks of African swine fever in Namibia in 2018. Sequencing of the C-terminus of the B646L gene (p72 protein), the central hypervariable region (CVR) of the B602L gene, the E183L gene (p54 protein) and the CD2v (used to determine the serogroup) was performed on DNA isolated from the samples. Phylogenetic analyses of the B646L (p72) revealed that one of the samples belonged to genotype I while the remaining samples could not be assigned to any currently known genotype. In contrast, by using the E183L gene three of the samples were shown to belong to genotype Id and only two were of unknown genotype. Based on the analysis of the partial CD2v amino acid sequences of four of the samples, one of the viruses clustered with serogroup 2 while the other three did not cluster within any of the eight known serogroups. Examination of the CVR identified three variants with 8, 18 and 24 tetrameric tandem repeat sequences. This study indicates that at least three different genetically distinct ASFV are currently present in Namibia., (© 2019 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

A feather cyst in the cervical region which, through complications of inward growth, resulted in compression of the cervical spinal cord of a Lohmann Brown layer is described. It is postulated that expansion of the cyst exerted pressure on the adjacent cervical vertebra and through bone lysis created an opening through which the cyst protruded, thereby exerting pressure on the spinal cord. The affected spinal cord segment was reduced to a fifth of its normal diameter. The bird most likely died of starvation because of limb and neck paralysis and disorientation. Although the cause of the feather cyst was not conclusively identified, moulting and trauma could have triggered its formation and subsequent growth.

Cases of rumen impaction caused by ingestion of Gonometa postica cocoons occurred at a farm in eastern-central Namibia. Ten animals died on the farm over the previous 5 months. Rumenotomies were successfully performed on three affected animals. The authors were of the opinion that the affected animals ingested the cocoons around the time of weaning, which then resulted in tangled masses that gradually stretched and enlarged because of entrapment of ingesta, eventually causing impaction of the rumen in the young adult animals. These are the first reported cases of ruminal impaction attributable to G. postica cocoon ingestion in Namibia.

A retrospective study from 2004 to 2017 investigated the effect of bull age, cow age and breed on conception rates, and calving intervals of beef cattle at Neudamm farm, Khomas region, Namibia. Bulls ranging from 4 to 14 years of age were used to breed cows up to 17 years of age. A total of 1804 pregnancies were diagnosed in Afrikaner (81.8%), Nguni (14.1%), and Simmental (4.1%) cows. The overall conception rate of beef cattle during the study period was 71.7 ± 9.5%. The overall conception rate of the Nguni cows (78.3%) was significantly higher than that of the Afrikaner (70.9%) and the Simmental cows (64.9%) (p < 0.05). The age of sires had no effect on overall conception rate in all three breeds (p > 0.05). Afrikaner dams more than 10 years old had the least rate of conception (60.4%, p < 0.05) within that breed category. Nguni dams between four to 10 years had the greatest conception rate (86.5%, p < 0.05). Age of dams had no effect on conception rates in Simmental cattle (p > 0.05). The overall mean length of all calving intervals in the Nguni cows (366 ± 35 days) was significantly shorter than those of the Afrikaner cows (487 ± 62 days) and the Simmental cows (484 ± 110 days) (p < 0.05). The 2013 breeding season produced the highest overall conception rates (~ 85%), and the 2007 breeding season produced the lowest overall conception rate (~ 51%). From a fertility point of view, the Nguni breed seemed best suited for the semi-arid conditions which are prevalent in most of Namibia.

A year-long prospective study characterized the seasonality of oestrus cycles in primiparous, nonpregnant Swakara (n=8) and Damara (n=5) ewes through surveillance of plasma progesterone (P4) levels. During this period, Swakara and Damara groups evidently averaged 23 oestrus cycles with an average length of 17 days. Damara ewes showed greater mean peak plasma P4 levels (11.4±0.16ng/ml) than Swakara ewes (5.4±0.11ng/ml) ( P <0.05). Oestrus cycles in Damara ewes showed relatively uniform plasma P4 peaks throughout the year ranging from 10.6±0.16 to 12.6±0.24ng/ml. In Swakara ewes, P4 peaks were highest in the autumn oestrus cycles (from 7.1±0.16 to 7.5±0.11ng/ml), rapidly declining through winter to 2.2±0.08ng/ml by midspring and then rapidly increasing to 4.9±0.37ng/ml at the commencement of summer, followed by a gradual increase from 5.7± to 7.1±ng/ml by the start of autumn. The annual mean area under the curve temporal progesterone measurements (AUCPM) in Damara ewes (115.9±18.6ng⁎day/ml) was greater than that in Swakara ewes (58.6±25.3ng⁎day/ml) (p<0.05). For Swakara ewes, the mean AUCPM in summer and autumn cycles (68.2±14.7 and 79.5±10.0ng⁎day/ml, respectively) were greater than those in spring and winter cycles (28.7±12.3 and 55.0±27.3ng⁎day/ml), respectively ( P <0.05). There was no seasonal variation in the exposure of the Damara ewes to P4 in between seasons ( P >0.05), though, however, the Damara ewes had greater P4 levels than the Swakara ewes ( P <0.05). Progesterone profiles showed that Swakara ewes possessed 'residual' seasonality, whereas the Damara ewes were no longer seasonal. The implications of this disparity in the seasonal exposure of Swakara and Damara ewes to luteal P4 on fertility warrant further investigation.

Trichinellosis is a worldwide zoonosis with genotypes affecting different domestic and wild animals and is widely distributed throughout the world. Species and genotypes of this genus affecting different animals have been identified. Despite its occurrence in Sub-Saharan countries, the presence of trichinellosis in Botswana is yet to be confirmed. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Trichinella infection in domestic pigs slaughtered at an abattoir in Gaborone, Botswana. Of the 111 pig carcasses selected, 5 g of crus of the diaphragm was collected from each carcass, trimmed of all fat and fascia and then cut into 1- to 2-g samples. The muscle samples were pooled into 100-g muscle sample and then processed by the OIE prescribed digestion method. A stereomicroscope was used to examine each grid of the Petri dish for the presence of Trichinella larvae. No Trichinella larvae were found in any digested muscle samples. Future studies should target a wider pig population and other host animals.

A survey involving 120 small-scale dairy farmers was carried out to assess risk factors associated with brucellosis in cattle from selected sectors of Nyagatare District, Rwanda. A sample of cattle from nine selected sectors of Nyagatare was tested for brucellosis using the Rose Bengal Test. Of the respondents, 57.5% were unaware of brucellosis as a disease, 85.8% did not screen new additions to the herd for brucellosis and 82.5% did not remove brucellosis seropositive animals from the herd. The prevalence of brucellosis in herds with cows with no history of abortion was 38.5% and 17.0% in those with a history of abortion. None of the respondents disinfected abortion sites or vaccinated against brucellosis. The prevalence of brucellosis in cows with a history of retained placenta was 36% and 2% in those with no history of retained placenta. Of the respondents, 62.5% reportedly fed foetal membranes to dogs. About 65.8% of the respondents with brucellosis-positive animals reported a calving interval longer than 1 year. Katabagemu (28.6%) had the highest prevalence of brucellosis seropositivity while Karama had none. Brucellosis in cows (21.4%) was significantly higher than that in heifers (12.8%) (p < 0.05), but there was no significant difference between heifers and bulls or between bulls and cows (p > 0.05). The occurrence of brucellosis in herds with 40-70 cattle (26.9%) was significantly greater than the 14.9% of herds with 10-39 cattle (p < 0.05). Seropositivity to brucellosis in cross-breed cattle (23.6%) was significantly greater than that in indigenous cattle (13.8%) (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in the overall prevalence of brucellosis in cattle from different grazing systems (p > 0.05). Seropositivity to brucellosis was significantly different (p < 0.05) between the fourth parity (32.5%) and first parity (14.3%) cows. The findings in this study confirmed the existence of brucellosis as a problem in Nyagatare and the authors recommend that farmer education on the epidemiology, risk factors and mitigation of the disease be undertaken as a matter of urgency.

This study investigated the magnitude of porcine cysticercosis (PC), its risk factors, economic effects and the perceptions of 80 pig farmers from Nyabimata (n = 38) and Muganza (n = 42) and 20 registered butchers in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda. January to December 2013 slaughter records from Kamirabagenzi market were also analysed for PC diagnoses based on the tongue test and meat inspection. During this period, the responding farmers' records showed a tongue test-based PC magnitude (3.9%, n = 984) which was lower than the collective tongue test-based PC magnitude of 9.2% (n = 1720) at Kamirabagenzi (p < .05). The overall magnitude of PC based on routine meat inspection diagnosis at Kamirabagenzi was 4%. The overall magnitude of PC for respondents using Free-range production systems (7.9%) was significantly greater than for those in Semi-intensive (2.1%) and Intensive production systems (1.5%) (p < .05). Though most farmers (90%) knew that PC is zoonotic, only 22.5% of the farmers opted for treatment of PC-infected pigs and 52.5% were willing to seek veterinary inspection while the rest (25%) opted to circumvent veterinary inspection (P > .05). Most butchers (70%) indicated they would circumvent veterinary inspection and continue to slaughter PC-positive animals whilst the rest (30%) indicated they would resell PC positive animals to defray costs (P < .05). The low sensitivity and specificity of methods used for PC detection in the study, implies that this may just be the tip of an iceberg and the actual magnitude is most likely to be much higher. In conclusion, PC is endemic in the Nyaruguru district of Rwanda with a high proportion of positive animals. The condition has public health implications and is worsening the economic plight of the impoverished Nyaruguru community., (Copyright © 2018. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

This study was designed to investigate the cytotoxicity and haemotoxicity of the Western barred (zebra) spitting cobra ( Naja nigricincta nigricincta ) venom to help explain atypical and inconsistent reports on syndromes by Namibian physicians treating victims of human ophidian accidents. Freeze-dried venom milked from adult zebra snakes was dissolved in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) for use in this study. Haemorrhagic and necrotic activity of venom were studied in New Zealand albino rabbits. Oedema-forming activity was investigated in 10-day-old Cobb500 broiler chicks. Procoagulant and thrombolytic activity was investigated in adult Kalahari red goat blood in vitro . The rabbit skin minimum hemorrhagic dose (MHD) for N. n. nigricincta was 9.8 μ g. The minimum necrotizing dose (MND) for N. n. nigricincta venom was 12.2 μ g. The N. n. nigricincta venom showed linear dose-dependent procoagulant activity on goat blood (p<0.05). Likewise, N. n. nigricincta venom showed linear dose-dependent thrombolytic activity on goat blood (p<0.05, n = 6). Subplantar injection of N. n. nigricincta venom (25 μ g, 50 μ g, 75 μ g, and 100 μ g) into chick paw resulted in peak oedema of 35.5%, 38.5%, 42.9%, and 47.5%, respectively, two hours after injection. Paw oedema subsided within five hours to a mean volume ranging from 5% (25 μ g venom) to 17.6% (100 μ g venom). In conclusion, though N. n. nigricincta belongs to the genus Elapidae , the current study has shown its venom to possess potent hemorrhagic, necrotic (cytotoxic), and paradoxically, both procoagulant and thrombolytic activity. The authors propose further work to fractionate, isolate, and elucidate the structure of the various N. n. nigricincta venom toxins as a prelude to the development of an antivenom.

This study investigated the overall prevalence of Haemonchus contortus infection in sheep and goats from five purposively selected subdivisions (sectors) of Nyagatare district from January to December 2014, after a high prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites and generalized poor productivity was reported in small ruminants in some districts of Rwanda. Faecal egg counts (FEC) were performed using the Modified Wisconsin Sugar Floatation method and the Fluorescent-labeled peanut-lectin agglutination test while enumerations, as log (FEC), were done using the modified McMaster method. The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep and goats was 75.7% (n=949). The overall prevalence of H. contortus infection in sheep (83.4%, n=314) was higher than in goats (71.8%, n=635) (Odds Ratio [OR] 1.98, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 1.40-2.79, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in female goats (74.2%) was higher than in male goats (64.3%) (OR 1.60, 95% CI: 1.09-2.36, and p=0.01). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Nyagatare was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 3.25, 95% CI: 1.76-5.99, and p≤0.001) and from Katabagemu (OR 3.67, 95% CI: 2.04-6.59, and p≤0.001). The prevalence of H. contortus infection in goats from Karangazi was higher than in goats from Matimba (OR 4.72, 95% CI: 2.40-9.28, and p≤0.001). The overall mean monthly log (FEC) for H. contortus in sheep and goats were highest in April (18.9±0.2 and 14.05±0.1, respectively) and October (19.25± 0.2 and 13.75±0.1, respectively). Though, overall, sheep in Nyagatare district were at greater risk of H. contortus infection and goats from Nyagatare and Karangazi sectors were paradoxically at greater risk of H. contortus infection. It was also apparent that young female goats were at greater risk of H. contortus infection than young male goats. H. contortus infection is endemic in small ruminants in Nyagatare district and possibly other districts in Rwanda. Targeted selective treatment (TST) using FAMACHA with emphasis on low-lying swampy pastures and appropriate anthelmintic drugs may be the most economically viable solution in the short term. In the long term breeding of H. contortus resistant small ruminants and strategic grazing using the concept of refugia may bring about considerable relief from H. contortus infection in Nyagatare district, in particular, and Rwanda at large.

Global demand for food is surging upward due to the expansion of human population. Hence food production and supply need to double with little or no waste to meet this demand. Food loss at any point in the farm to fork chain inhibits the stability of food security at household and national level. A retrospective (AR) and a post mortem meat inspection (PMMI) study to identify major causes of offal and carcass condemnation was conducted in three abattoirs namely, Adeliade, Queenstown and East London abattoirs represented as AD, QT, and EL respectively. The retrospective study revealed the main causes of tongue condemnation as abscess (0.08%, 0.03% and 0.05%) and actinobacillosis (0.02%, 0% and 0.02%) respectively. The spleen was condemned due to abscess (0.35%, 0.94% and 0.17%) and splenomegaly (0.21%, 0.55% and 0.2%). The heart was condemned due to cyst (0.24%, 0.36% and 0.2%) and inflammation (0.9%, 1.85%, and 0.75%). While the kidney, was condemned due to cyst (0.08%, 0.23% and 0.16%) and nephritis (0.94%, 1.01% and 1.18%). However, a greater percentage of condemnation was recorded during the active abattoir study. During the same period, partial carcass condemnations were mainly due to bruises (63.3%, 50.4% and 41.0%), abscess (7%, 6% and 14%) and improper evisceration (19%, 31% and 27%). The combined monetary loss due to offal's and carcass condemnation during the AR and PMMI study was estimated as ZAR 255194.4 (34191.5 USD) and ZAR 25958.8 (2570.2 USD) respectively. This study identified major causes of offals and carcass condemnation as abscess, bruises, actinobacillosis, cyst, inflammatory conditions and improper evisceration. It can be used as starting point information for early warning on livestock diseases of economic loss in South Africa., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

South Africa's livestock population is rapidly evolving and consequently will require sustained epidemiological surveillance to detect and prevent diseases which contribute to a decrease in livestock productivity, public health risk and food wastage. Fasciola infection is one of the commonest diseases affecting livestock health and a significant portion of meat and offal's are declared unfit for human consumption. This study assessed the prevalence and monetary losses associated with Fasciola infection at three abattoirs in Eastern Cape Province. A retrospective data of all slaughtered cattle were obtained from Department of Rural Development and Agrarian Reform (DRDAR) from 2010-2012. A prospective abattoir survey was conducted between July 2013 and June 2014 to determine the prevalence and financial loss due to fasciolosis. The highest prevalence was in December and January (23%) while the lowest prevalence was recorded in May and June (5%). Annual prevalence of Fasciola at abattoirs AB1, were (3.2%, 2.2% and 2.0%), AB2 (6.4%, 4.6% and 3.5%), AB3 (14.4%, 6.9% and 9.5%) for year 2010, 2011 and 2012 respectively. The total financial loss due to Fasciola infection during the active survey of the three abattoirs was ZAR 44, 930 (3456.2 USD). A breakdown of this figure shows that whole liver condemnation was ZAR 25, 230 (2, 357 USD), and partial liver condemnation was ZAR 19, 700 (1515.4 USD). The present study reveals the economic loss due to liver condemnation from Fasciola infection and provides regional baseline information regarding the prevalence of Fasciola in cattle at three abattoirs.

Aim: Determination of the incidence of gastric ulcers in pigs slaughtered at Base Abattoir in Rwanda., Materials and Methods: Stomachs from all 5040 pigs that were slaughtered at Base Abattoir in Rwanda from August 2012 to August 2015 were examined for the presence and location of gastric ulcers. The results of the inspections were recorded and analyzed. Statistical analysis for Chi-square values was performed using the Software Package for Social Sciences version 16.0. The Z test for comparison of proportions was used and p<0.05 was considered significant., Results: Overall as well as per district, significantly more male pigs than female pigs were slaughtered (p<0.05). The incidence of gastric ulcers in slaughter pigs was 12.86%. The incidence of gastric ulcers in males (13.36%) was not significantly different (p>0.05) from that in female pigs (12.84%) in all three districts. A significantly greater proportion of these ulcers (69.03%) was located in the esophageal region than in the glandular region of the stomach (30.97%) in slaughtered males (p<0.05). A significantly greater proportion of these ulcers (79.59%) was located in the esophageal region than in the glandular region of the stomach (20.41%) in slaughtered females (p<0.05). The overall incidence of esophageal ulcers (9.44%) in the slaughtered pigs was significantly (p<0.05) higher than that of glandular region ulcers (3.41%). Pigs with carcass weight over 60 kg showed a significantly (p<0.05) higher (44.44%) incidence of ulcers than those between 40 and 60 kg (33.33%) and those below 40 kg (22.22%)., Conclusions: It was concluded that the incidence of gastric ulceration in slaughter pigs at Base Abattoir was not associated with source (district) or sex of pigs but was associated with the carcass weight.

Male reproductive performance has more impact on overall herd productivity than in the female. In order to assess herd productivity in cattle in Nyagatare, Eastern Rwanda, the proportional distribution of male reproductive organ abnormalities was investigated in 3087 bulls slaughtered over a 4-year period. The aim of the study was to investigate the proportional distribution of male reproductive organ abnormalities in exotic and indigenous bulls slaughtered over a 4-year period at Nyagatare abattoir in Eastern Rwanda. Positioning of the testicles was observed and recorded as the animals were assembled before slaughter. After slaughter, the internal and external reproductive organs of all bulls were removed, labelled and analysed for pathology. Significantly more indigenous (79.01%) than exotic (20.99%) animals were slaughtered ( P  < 0.05; N  = 3 087). Overall occurrence of abnormalities was significantly higher in exotic (20.83%) than in indigenous (10.33%) animals ( P  < 0.05). Overall, abnormal location of testicles was the most common abnormality (4.08%) followed by abnormal prepuce and penis (2.33%), orchitis (1.94%), enlarged vesicular gland (0.91%), scrotal hernia (0.87%), unilateral cryptorchidism (0.81%), testicular hypoplasia (0.81%) and hydrocoele (0.78%). Abnormal location of testicles, abnormal prepuce and penis, orchitis, testicular hypoplasia and enlarged vesicular glands had significantly higher prevalence in exotic animals than in indigenous animals ( P  < 0.05). There was no significant difference in the prevalence of unilateral cryptorchidism, hydrocoele and scrotal hernia between the exotic and indigenous breeds. The encountered reproductive abnormalities result in poor herd fertility manifesting as low first-service conception rates, prolonged breeding seasons and reduced weaning weights accompanied by inevitable financial losses in beef production. The observed high proportion of male reproductive abnormalities in exotic breeds might offset the professed benefits from introduction of these exotic breeds with the aim of improving productivity.

Four subclinical mastitis diagnostic tests (the UdderCheck® test [a lactate dehydrogenasebased test], the California Mastitis Test [CMT], the Draminski® test [a conductivity-based test] and the PortaSCC® test [a portable somatic cell count-based test]) were compared in a study comprising crossbreed dairy cows (n = 30) during September and October 2015. Sensitivity and specificity of the CMT, Draminski® and UdderCheck® tests were compared with the PortaSCC® as reference. The CMT, Draminski® and UdderCheck® test results were compared with the results of the PortaSCC® test using kappa statistics. Duplicate quarter milk samples (n = 120) were concurrently subjected to the four tests. Sensitivity and specificity were 88.46% and 86.17% (CMT), 78.5% and 81.4% (Draminski®) and 64.00% and 78.95% (UdderCheck®). The CMT showed substantial agreement (k = 0.66), the Draminski® test showed moderate agreement (k = 0.48) and the UdderCheck® test showed fair agreement (k = 0.37) with the PortaSCC® test and positive likelihood ratios were 6.40, 4.15 and 3.04, respectively. The cow-level subclinical mastitis prevalence was 70%, 60%, 60% and 56.7% for PortaSCC®, CMT, Draminski® and UdderCheck® tests, respectively. At udder quarter level, subclinical mastitis prevalence was 20%, 21.67% and 20.83% for PortaSCC®, CMT and UdderCheck®, respectively. A correlation (P &lt; 0.05) and moderate strength of association were found between the four tests used. The study showed that compared to the PortaSCC® test, the CMT was the most preferable option, followed by the Draminski® test, while the UdderCheck® test was the least preferable option for subclinical mastitis screening.

Fasciolosis is an important zoonotic disease that is responsible for a significant loss in food resource and animal productivity. The objectives of this study were to determine the seasonal prevalence and risk factors associated with Fasciola infection in cattle. The results were obtained by coprology, antemortem and post-mortem survey of three abattoirs (HTPA1, n = 500, HTPA2, n = 400, and LTPA, n = 220). The seasonal prevalence of Fasciola infection was 10.4%, 12.8% and 10.9%, during summer, 11.2%, 10.8% and 8.6%, during autumn, 9.8%, 6.5% and 5.9% during winter and 8.2%, 7.8% and 5.9%, during spring in the three abattoirs HTPA1, HTPA and LTPA respectively. There was a significant association (p < 0.05) between the intensity of infection and body condition score (BCS) of cattle at each abattoir. Factors such as age [HTPA1 (OR = 3.6, CI = 1.2, 10.2), and LTPA (OR = 3.8, CI= 2.4, 6.1)], sex [LTPA (OR = 4.2, CI= 2.5, 7.0)], breed [HTPA2 (OR = 2.3, CI = 1.3, 4.1) and LTPA (OR = 2.5, CI= 1.3, 5.0)] and BCS had significant (p < 0.01-0.001) influence on the prevalence of fasciolosis. In conclusion, the infection with Fasciola spp was higher in the summer than in the winter; a positive association was established between the prevalence of fasciolosis and poor body condition in study animals. This study, therefore, suggests that fasciolosis could be causing substantial production losses, mainly due to cattle weight loss and liver condemnation., (© 2017 The Authors.)

A 3-year prospective study investigated the incidence of milk fever in Jersey and Holstein cows at a commercial dairy farm in Beatrice, Zimbabwe. The overall incidence of milk fever at the farm was 7.98%. Incidence of milk fever in Jerseys (14.78%) was significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) than that in Holsteins (4.82%). Incidence of milk fever in Jerseys beyond their fourth parity (24.85%) was significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) than that in Jerseys in their second (5.90%), third (6.49%) and fourth (8.73%) parities. Incidence of milk fever in Holsteins beyond their fourth parity (8.29%) was significantly higher (p &lt; 0.05) than that in Holsteins in their second (1.43%), third (1.82%) and fourth (2.91%) parities. No significant difference existed in milk fever incidences between the second, third and fourth parities in either Jersey or Holstein cows. Incidence of milk fever in Jersey cows producing over 6114 litres per 305-day lactation (27.07%) was significantly higher than that in Jerseys producing less than 6114 litres of milk per 305-day lactation (p &lt; 0.05). Incidence of milk fever in Holsteins producing more than 9149 litres per 305-day lactation (10.49%) was significantly higher than that in Holsteins producing less than 9149 litres of milk per 305-day lactation (p &lt; 0.05). No significant difference existed between incidences of milk fever between the first, second and third quartile producers (p &gt; 0.05) in either Jersey or Holstein cows. This study confirms that the risk of developing milk fever is higher in Jerseys and also increases with increasing parity and higher levels of milk production in both breeds, thus advocating for special considerations when dairy cows fit these criteria.

Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus is caused by a zoonotic arbovirus that is endemic to eastern and southern Africa. It has also been reported in West and North Africa, Madagascar and the Arabian Peninsula. The virus is transmitted by mosquitoes, but people can also become infected while handling blood or other body fluids of animals and humans with RVF. In 2007, there was a large outbreak of RVF in Kenya, Tanzania, Sudan and Somalia. Outbreaks were also reported in South Africa in 2008-2011. The epidemiology of RVF and factors for disease occurrence in Rwanda are neither clear nor documented. Therefore, we conducted a crosssectional study from December 2012 to March 2013 to generate baseline information on RVF in cattle. Purposive sampling of cattle (n = 595) was done in six districts, and serum samples were screened with competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). We performed a statistical analysis on the generated data, and risk factors associated with RVF seroprevalence were determined by a simple logistic regression. Overall, RVF seroprevalence was 16.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] [13.8% - 20.0%]). The highest seroprevalence was recorded in Kirehe district (36.9%) followed by Ngoma (22.3%), and the least was recorded in Nyagatare (7.9%). RVF was more likely to occur in adult cattle (19.9% [odds ratio {OR} = 1.88, 95% CI {0.98-3.61}]) compared to young cattle (10.5% [OR = 0.47, 95% CI {0.26-0.83}]). Pure exotic or cross-breeds were significantly exposed to RVF virus (seroprevalence 22.9% [OR = 4.26, 95% CI {1.82-9.99}]) in comparison to 14.1% (OR = 0.55, 95% CI [0.35-0.86]) in local breeds. Sex differences were not statistically significant. These findings indicated that cattle have been exposed to RVF virus in six districts in Rwanda with a significant risk in adult, exotic or cross-breeds in Kirehe district.

Reproductive and urinary tract abnormalities are a cause of infertility, reproductive inefficiency, and economic losses in goats. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and nature of reproductive and urinary tract abnormalities encountered in female goats slaughtered at Nyagatare abattoir in the Eastern Province of Rwanda. Reproductive and urinary organs from 369 female goat carcasses were opened by incision and then given a thorough macroscopic examination by visually inspecting and palpating for evidence of abnormalities. The results showed that there was an overall occurrence of 7.8% reproductive organ/tract abnormalities and 10.6% urinary organ/tract abnormalities. Ovarian hypoplasia was the reproductive abnormality with the highest overall occurrence (32.3%) and renal calculi were the urinary organ abnormality with the highest occurrence (38.1%). 95.2% of the reproductive organ/tract abnormalities observed usually result in infertility and 91.3% of the urinary organ/tract abnormalities observed result in economic losses through condemnation of kidneys at slaughter. The high incidence of the observed urinary organ/tract abnormalities represents a potential public health challenge. There was no significant difference in the occurrence of reproductive organ/tract abnormalities according to breed ( p > 0.05, n = 31). There was also no significant difference in the occurrence of urinary organ abnormalities according to breed ( p > 0.05, n = 42).

There are no published abattoir bovine hepatic lesion prevalence studies in cattle in Rwanda. This study estimated that 12.3% of the livers (n=4751) examined at Nyabugogo slaughterhouse in Kigali were condemned. Condemnation prejudiced the nation of 3492.00kg of meat with attendant economic losses of US$8932.40 during the study period. Risk factors for these lesions were also assessed. Male and female animals from 11 districts were used in this study. Hepatic lesions were higher in females (14.6%; n=1494) than in males (11.1%; n=3257). About 78.7% of the condemnations were due to fascioliasis, followed by abscesses (5.7%), hepatitis (5.3%), cirrhosis (4%) and other lesions (6.3%). Female animal livers showed more fascioliasis and abscesses (82.2% and 9.5%) than male animal livers (73.3% and 3.3%). The highest rate of condemnation was observed from Kayonza (40.2%; n=413) and the least was from Gakenke district (0.9%; n=1031). Cattle from the Eastern Province showed significantly (P<0.05) higher prevalence of condemnations (26.8%) than the rest of the provinces. Liver specimens of animals below 3 years and above 6 years of age had a significantly higher (P<0.05) condemnation rate (14.4%) (n=3000 and n=769) than the 3-6year age-group at 4.1% (n=982). We conclude that fascioliasis was responsible for a significant proportion of the liver condemnations at Nyabugogo slaughterhouse. Being a zoonosis, we recommend an epidemio-surveillance, implementation of control measures and anthelmintic resistance investigation for fascioliasis in Rwanda., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Information obtained from abattoirs on the causes of lung condemnation is important in preventing the spread of zoonotic diseases and for promoting food security. In this study, we assessed the causes of lung condemnation in cattle at three abattoirs represented as ANA, QTA and EBA to evaluate the financial losses associated with lung condemnation. A retrospective study (n = 51 302) involving the use of abattoir slaughter records of 2010-2012 and an active abattoir survey (n = 1374) was conducted from July to December 2013. The retrospective study revealed the main causes of lung condemnation as pneumonia (1.09%, 2.21% and 0.77%), emphysema (1.12%, 1.14% and 1.1.6%) and abscessation (0.71%, 1.06% and 0.77%), from ANA, QTA and EBA, respectively. The combined monetary loss because of lung condemnation during the period 2010 to 2012 was estimated as ZAR 85 158 (USD 7939) for the abattoirs surveyed. Conversely, during the active abattoir survey, agonal emphysema (15%, 15% and 23%) and improper eviscerations with faecal contamination (10%, 38% and 42%) were the major factors that led to lung condemnation at ANA, QTA and EBA, respectively. Other causes of lung condemnations were haemorrhage (10%) for QTA and pleurisy (12%) for EBA. The weight loss of lungs during the active abattoir survey was 6450 kg, while the associated monetary loss was estimated as ZAR 29 025 (USD 2706). This study identified major causes of lung condemnation as pleuritis, improper evisceration, pneumonia, abscesses, haemorrhages and lung worms and their associated monetary losses. The results of this study may be useful as baseline data for future comparison in similar surveys, for tracking of some zoonotic diseases affecting lungs and for further research in the Eastern Cape Province or other provinces of South Africa.

Ingestion of indigestible foreign bodies in cattle is a pathological condition of both economic and health importance. It is has mostly been reported in association with feed scarcity. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence and nature of indigestible foreign materials in abattoir fore-stomach specimens in Ngoma district, Rwanda. Each chamber was opened by incision, then given a thorough macroscopic examination by visual inspection and palpation for the presence of foreign materials. The results show that there is an overall occurrence of 17.4% foreign bodies in cattle. The highest occurrence (25.3%) was recorded in June (the driest month). Results further show that the majority of the foreign bodies were plastics (65.0%). More foreign bodies (29.5%) were found in older animals (5 years and above) than in younger and middle-aged animals (16.5 % and 6.0%, respectively). There was a higher prevalence of foreign bodies in female cattle (20.0%) than in males (15.7%). The presence of cassette tape, as observed in the study, has not been reported elsewhere. The high representation of plastics in animals (65.5%) in the light of a government plastic bag ban in supermarkets presents a major challenge to livestock production in Rwanda. What is disturbing is that it is not known if this problem is increasing or decreasing as there are no previous studies for comparison. However, the results will serve as a reference point for future studies to understand the true trend and true burden of plastic bags in livestock.

In response to farmer requests after milk from their herds was rejected by processors due to poor quality, a study was carried out from April to October 2011 to determine the prevalence of sub clinical mastitis, associated risk factors and causative micro-organisms. Samples were collected from 195 dairy cows on 23 randomly selected dairy farms delivering milk to Isangano, Kirebe and Nyagatare milk collection centres in Nyagatare District, Rwanda. The Draminski Mastitis Detector was used to detect sub clinical mastitis in individual cows based on milk electrical conductivity changes. Risk factors for mastitis that were evaluated included teat-end condition, cow dirtiness, breed, parity, age and stage of lactation. Relationships of these factors with mastitis status were determined using Chi-square analysis, and relative importance as causes of mastitis was assessed using logistic regression. Samples from 16 sub clinical mastitis positive dairy cows were analysed to identify causative micro-organisms using Dairy Quality Control Inspection analytical kits. Sub clinical mastitis prevalence was 52% across the farms. It was higher with increases in, amongst other risk factors, teat-end damage severity, cow dirtiness, and level of pure dairy breed genetics. The risk factors considered accounted for 62% of mastitis prevalence; teat-end condition alone accounted for 30%. Most of the mastitis cases (87.5%) were caused by coliform bacteria. Considering that farmers are upgrading their local Ankole cows to cross-breed dairy cows that are more susceptible to mastitis, results from this study indicate the need to dip the teats of cows in sanitisers, improve cow hygiene, and introduce mastitis prevention and control programmes.

Despite the significant public health burden of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in Rwanda, the prevalence of bTB is poorly documented. This study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of bTB in cattle using gross examination of granulomatous lesions, to identify mycobacteria species in suspected samples, and to evaluate the economic impact of meat condemnation based on bTB-like lesions in the meat industry in Rwanda. Routine meat inspection was conducted at Société des Abattoirs de Nyabugogo (SABAN)-Nyabugogo Abattoir. Tissue samples including 31 lymph nodes, 3 lungs and 2 livers were obtained from cattle of different ages with gross tuberculous lesions. Mycobacterium bovis was identified using microscopy with Kinyoun staining and isolation of mycobacterial species in culture on Löwenstein-Jensen and Colestos media, further identified using biochemical tests. Our findings, based on culture and postmortem results, show that the prevalence of bTB is 0.5%(0.587*148/16753), with an overall gross tuberculous lesion prevalence of 0.9% (148/16753). The presence of lesions were higher in cattle aged 2 years and older (1.6% vs. 0.6%, p &lt; 0.05) and higher in females than in males (1.4% vs. 0.6%, p &lt; 0.05). Of the 36 samples tested, 26 (72.2%) were positive by microscopic examination with Kinyoun staining while M. bovis was culture-confirmed in 21 (58.7%) cases. Bovine tuberculosis caused condemnation of 1683.5 kg of meat, resulting in an estimated loss of $4810. Our findings indicate that the prevalence of bTB in Rwanda is significant, and that bTB is a major cause of meat condemnation requiring continued implementation of surveillance and control measures. Furthermore, the results from this study also show important variations in sensitivity of the different tests that were used to determine the prevalence of bTB in cattle in Rwanda.