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Introduction: Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) has affected more than 676 million people till date, and 6,881,955 people have died from the disease as of March 28, 2023. Understanding the immunopathogenesis of the disease has led to more vaccine studies. The Comirnaty and CoronaVac vaccines are used in our country. The role of serology tests in the interpretation of protective and sustained immunity remains controversial after vaccines. However, serological testing is part of epidemiology and is essential for understanding the immunity against Severe acute respiratory syndrome-Coronavirus-2. We aimed to determine the antibody titers after vaccination and its effect on immunity, which could lead to new studies. Materials and Methods: Two traditional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) techniques (Euroimmune and Genzbio Covel) and one point-of-care (POC) method (Genz-Pro) were used in our study for detecting antibodies in vaccinated individuals. Results: A total of 84 individuals were included in our study. The results obtained using the Genz-Pro test were evaluated according to the vaccine status; the positive antibody detection rate was significantly higher in Comirnaty-vaccinated patients than in CoronaVac-vaccinated individuals. The Spearman’s correlation coefficient demonstrated a positive correlation between the two ELISA techniques. Conclusion: The POC ELISA can quantify IgG seroconversion after COVID-19 vaccination with rapid and multiple measurements without sample accumulation. Thus, the POC ELISA can be used in COVID-19 services and outpatient clinics during post-vaccination follow-up to determine the performance of vaccines.

Objective: The aim of this study is to reveal the relationship between the cytokine plasma levels and symptoms of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19)-positive patients, which is characterized by serious respiratory syndromes. Materials and Methods: Severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2)-positive patients were evaluated in four groups. Group 1 patients had no symptoms. Group 2 patients were mildly symptomatic. Group 3 patients had multiple symptoms. Group 4 patients had all symptoms of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Analysis of interleukin (IL)-17A, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and IL-6 concentrations in plasma samples taken from patients were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Results: IL-17A levels were increased in parallel with the clinical condition in all patients. TGF-β1 was only observed in patients in Groups 3 and 4, and IL-6 was only observed in Group 4 patients. Conclusion: It is known that many cytokines are involved in the development of different viral infections and viral invasion always triggers an inflammatory response. The profile of inflammatory markers may be used to classify COVID-19 patients. In conclusion of this study, it is suggested that the level of cytokines which is changed according to the patient's clinical status should be used to evaluate the response of SARS-CoV-2 treatment. IL-17A, TGF-β1, and IL-6 concentrations in plasma levels could be good prognostic indicators of COVID-19.

ABSTRACT: Objectives: Antibiotic therapy for Pseudomonas infections is becoming increasingly difficult. In this study, the transposons from two multidrug-resistant (MDR) clinical Pseudomonas strains containing related transposons responsible for giving rise to resistance determinants were characterised.Methods: Two MDR clinical Pseudomonas isolates were obtained from a medical facility in Cyprus. The strains were identified as Pseudomonas putida C54 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa C69. DNA was extracted from both strains and was sequenced. Transposons were identified, annotated and compared with DNA sequences in GenBank.Results: Two related nested transposons, here named Tn6608 (from P. putida C54) and Tn6609 (from P. aeruginosa C69), were characterised. The transposons are built on an ancestral Tn1403 base element (here named Tn1403A) that contains only the transposition module (tnpA and tnpR) and the associated cargo gene module (orfA, orfB, orfC and orfD) flanked by a 38-bp inverted repeat. The nested transposons identified in this study have evolved via acquisition of multiple transposons, adding multiple resistance genes to an ancestral transposon that originally lacked any resistance determinants.Conclusion: Transposons related to Tn6608 and Tn6609 have evolved and are globally disseminated. Of particular interest is that most of these nested transposons are located within the same site in a genomic island, providing alternative avenues for dissemination.

Early detection and characterization of new variants and their impacts enable improved genomic surveillance. This study aims to evaluate the subvariant distribution of Omicron strains isolated from Turkish cases to determine the rate of antiviral resistance of RdRp and 3CLpro inhibitors. The Stanford University Coronavirus Antiviral & Resistance Database online tool was used for variant analyses of the strains uploaded to GISAID as Omicron (n = 20.959) between January 2021 and February,2023. Out of 288 different Omicron subvariants, B.1, BA.1, BA.2, BA.4, BE.1, BF.1, BM.1, BN.1, BQ.1, CK.1, CL.1, and XBB.1 were the main determined subvariants, and BA.1 (34.7%), BA.2 (30.8%), and BA.5 (23.6%) were reported most frequently. RdRp and 3CLPro-related resistance mutations were determined in n = 150, 0.72% sequences, while the rates of resistance against RdRp and 3CLpro inhibitors were reported at 0.1% and 0.6%, respectively. Mutations that were previously associated with a reduced susceptibility to remdesivir, nirmatrelvir/r, and ensitrelvir were most frequently detected in BA.2 (51.3%). The mutations detected at the highest rate were A449A/D/G/V (10.5%), T21I (10%), and L50L/F/I/V (6%). Our findings suggest that continuous monitoring of variants, due to the diversity of Omicron lineages, is necessary for global risk assessment. Although drug-resistant mutations do not pose a threat, the tracking of drug mutations will be necessary due to variant heterogenicity.

Background & Aims: Direct-acting antiviral (DAA) regimens provide a cure in >95% of patients with chronic HCV infection. However, in some patients in whom therapy fails, resistance-associated substitutions (RASs) can develop, limiting retreatment options and risking onward resistant virus transmission. In this study, we evaluated RAS prevalence and distribution, including novel NS5A RASs and clinical factors associated with RAS selection, among patients who experienced DAA treatment failure. Methods: SHARED is an international consortium of clinicians and scientists studying HCV drug resistance. HCV sequence linked metadata from 3,355 patients were collected from 22 countries. NS3, NS5A, and NS5B RASs in virologic failures, including novel NS5A substitutions, were examined. Associations of clinical and demographic characteristics with RAS selection were investigated. Results: The frequency of RASs increased from its natural prevalence following DAA exposure: 37% to 60% in NS3, 29% to 80% in NS5A, 15% to 22% in NS5B for sofosbuvir, and 24% to 37% in NS5B for dasabuvir. Among 730 virologic failures, most were treated with first-generation DAAs, 94% had drug resistance in ≥1 DAA class: 31% single-class resistance, 42% dual-class resistance (predominantly against protease and NS5A inhibitors), and 21% triple-class resistance. Distinct patterns containing ≥2 highly resistant RASs were common. New potential NS5A RASs and adaptive changes were identified in genotypes 1a, 3, and 4. Following DAA failure, RAS selection was more frequent in older people with cirrhosis and those infected with genotypes 1b and 4. Conclusions: Drug resistance in HCV is frequent after DAA treatment failure. Previously unrecognized substitutions continue to emerge and remain uncharacterized. Lay summary: Although direct-acting antiviral medications effectively cure hepatitis C in most patients, sometimes treatment selects for resistant viruses, causing antiviral drugs to be either ineffective or only partially effective. Multidrug resistance is common in patients for whom DAA treatment fails. Older patients and patients with advanced liver diseases are more likely to select drug-resistant viruses. Collective efforts from international communities and governments are needed to develop an optimal approach to managing drug resistance and preventing the transmission of resistant viruses.

The diagnosis of new variants and monitoring their potential effects on diagnosis, therapeutics, and vaccines by genomic sequencing is essential to manage global public crises. In the current study, spike-genome next-generation sequencing was generated from 492 SARS-CoV-2 isolates to evaluate the mutations in Turkey from April 2021 to February 2022. The variant analysis was performed using (Coronavirus Antiviral and Resistance Database (CoV-RDB) by Stanford University). We revealed that the lineages Alpha (B.1.1.7), Beta (B.1.351), Delta (B.1.617.2), Eta (B.1.525), variant of interest (VOI), lota (B.1.526), Zeta (P.2), Omicron (B.1.1.529), and Omicron BA.1 (B.1.1.529.1) were in the circulation in Turkey during the given period. The most common lineages were B.1.1.7, B.1.617.2, B.1.1.529, and B.1.1.529.1 SARS-CoV-2 variant circulation in Turkey seems highly heterogenetic; however, quite similar to the global epidemiologic analysis. The existence of globally circulating variants in the same chronological order in Turkey can be a guide for precautions, treatment, and vaccine options to be taken in the future.

Background: Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) can be transmitted from mothers to their babies during pregnancy, delivery through vaginal fluids or breastfeeding. As false positivity anti-HIV results due to pregnancy could be detected and no relevant study have been reported in Northern Cyprus so far, we aimed to estimate the false anti-HIV positivity rate in pregnant women. Methods: A total of 11.977 women admitted to Near East University Hospital between 2015 and 2018 were involved. The fourth generation anti-HIV-1/2 ELISA test was carried out by chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay. Positive results were confirmed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (rt-PCR). SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Demo Ver 22 program was used for statistical analysis and significance (p

Objectives: Chronic hepatitis C (CHC) is now a more curable disease with new direct acting antivirals (DAA). Although high sustained virologic response rates, failures still occur in DAA regimens. Our objective in this study was to characterize the real-life presence of clinically relevant resistance – associated substitutions (RASs) in the HCV NS5A gene in CHC patients whose DAA regimen has failed. Methods: The study enrolled 53 CHC patients who experienced failure with DAA regimen as the prospective longitudinal cohort between 2017–2019. Genotypic resistance testing was performed via the viral population sequencing method and The Geno2pheno HCV tool was used for RAS analysis. Results: The most frequent failure category was relapse (88%) followed by non-responder (12%). For a total of 36% of patients, RASs was detected in NS5A, Y93H was the most detected RAS in GT1b infected patients (89%). Conclusions: This study establishes an HCV failure registry for Turkey in which samples were combined with clinical, virologic and molecular data of adult patients whose DAA therapy failed. RASs can occur in CHC patients with DAA treatment failures. Evaluation of RAS after DAA failure is very important before re-treatment is initiated to prevent virologic failure.

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) has affected more than 31 million individuals and has resulted in 965,000 deaths on September 21, 2020. As the number of cases increases, clinical conditions such as prolonged viral release, reinfection, and reactivation are encountered more frequently. This report presents the case of a patient who was reinfected with COVID-19 that had a more severe disease course unlike other previous cases reported in literature. Possible reinfection with Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 in a splenectomy case may help understand immunity against COVID-19 and can be a guide for development of vaccines and new treatments.

Antibody tests, widely used as a complementary approach to reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction testing in identifying COVID-19 cases, are used to measure antibodies developed for COVID-19. This study aimed to evaluate the different parameters of the FDA-authorized SARS-CoV-2 IgM antibody tests and to rank them according to their performance levels. In the study, we involved 27 antibody tests, and the analyzes were performed using the fuzzy preference ranking organization method for the enrichment evaluation model, a multi-criteria decision-making model. While criteria such as analytical sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were evaluated in the study, the ranking was reported by determining the importance levels of the criteria. According to our evaluation, Innovita 2019-nCoV Ab Test (colloidal gold) was at the top of the ranking. While Cellex qSARS-CoV-2 IgG/IgM Rapid Test and Assure COVID-19 IgG/IgM Rapid Tester ranked second and third on the list, the InBios-SCoV 2 Detect Ig M ELISA Rapid Test Kit was determined as the least preferable. The fuzzy preference ranking organization method for enrichment evaluation, which has been applied to many fields, can help decision-makers choose the appropriate antibody test for managing COVID-19 in controlling the global pandemic.

(1) Background: SARS-CoV-2 variants possess specific mutations throughout their genome; however, the effect of these mutations on pathogenesis is little known. The study aimed to identify SARS-CoV-2 variants and their susceptibility rate against monoclonal antibodies, convalescent, and vaccine plasma. (2) Methods: Strains isolated from COVID-19 cases in Turkey in April and September 2021 were involved. Illuma Nextera XT was processed for NGS, followed by virtual phenotyping (Coronavirus Antiviral and Resistance Database (CoV-RDB) by Stanford University). (3) Results: Among 211 strains, 79% were SARS-CoV-2 variants. B.1.1.7 (Alpha) was the most dominant, followed by B.1.617.2 (Delta), B.1.351 (Beta), and B.1.525 (Eta). Alpha and Delta were less susceptible to Etesevimab—Sotrovimab and Bamlanivimab—Etesevimab, respectively. Reduced efficacy was observed for convalescent plasma in Beta and Delta; AstraZeneca, Comirnaty plus AstraZeneca in Alpha; Comirnaty, Moderna, Novovax in Beta; Comirnaty in Delta. (4) Conclusion: CoV-RDB analysis is an efficient, rapid, and helpful web tool for SARS-CoV-2 variant detection and susceptibility analysis.

Background: Approximately 71 million people are still in need of direct-acting antiviral agents (DAAs). To achieve the World Health Organization Hepatitis C elimination goals, insight into the prevalence and influence of resistance associated substitutions (RAS) is of importance. Collaboration is key since DAA failure is rare and real-life data are scattered. We have established a European collaboration, HepCare, to perform in-depth analysis regarding RAS prevalence, patterns, and multiclass occurrence. Methods: Data were extracted from the HepCare cohort of patients who previously failed DAA therapy. Geno—and subtypes were provided by submitters and mostly based on in-house assays. They were reassessed using the Comet HCV subtyping tool. We considered RAS to be relevant if they were associated with DAA failure in vivo previously reported in literature. Results: We analyzed 938 patients who failed DAA therapy from ten different European countries. There were 239 genotypes (GT) 1a, 380 GT1b, 19 GT2c, 205 GT3a, 14 GT4a, and 68 GT4d infections. Several unusual subtypes (n = 15) (GT1b/g/l, GT3b, GT4k/n/r/t) were present. RAS appeared in over 80% of failures and over a quarter had three or more RAS. Multiclass RAS varied over target region and genotype between 0–48%. RAS patterns such as the Q30R + L31M and Q30R + Y93H in GT1a, the L31V + Y93H and L31V + Y93H for GT1b, and A30K + L31M and A30K/V + Y93H for GT3a all occurred with a prevalence below 5%. Conclusion: RAS occur frequently after DAA failures and follow a specific genotype and drug related pattern. Interpretation of the influence of RAS on retreatment is challenging due to various patterns, patients’ characteristics, and previous treatment history. Moving towards HCV elimination, an ongoing resistance surveillance is essential to track the presence of RAS, RAS patterns and gather data for a re-treatment algorithm.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection remains a major public health threat in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). Phylogenetic analysis of HBV can be helpful to study the putative transmission links and patterns of inter-country spread of the virus. The objectives of the current study were to analyze the HBV genotype/sub-genotype (SGT) distribution, reverse transcriptase (RT), and surface (S) gene mutations and to investigate the domestic transmission of HBV in the MENA. All HBV molecular sequences collected in the MENA were retrieved from GenBank as of 30 April 2021. Determination of genotypes/SGT, RT, and S mutations were based on the Geno2pheno (hbv) 2.0 online tool. For the most prevalent HBV SGTs, maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis was conducted to identify the putative phylogenetic clusters, with approximate Shimodaira–Hasegawa-like likelihood ratio test values ≥ 0.90, and genetic distance cut-off values ≤ 0.025 substitutions/site as implemented in Cluster Picker. The total number of HBV sequences used for genotype/SGT determination was 4352 that represented a total of 20 MENA countries, with a majority from Iran (n = 2103, 48.3%), Saudi Arabia (n = 503, 11.6%), Tunisia (n = 395, 9.1%), and Turkey (n = 267, 6.1%). Genotype D dominated infections in the MENA (86.6%), followed by genotype A (4.1%), with SGT D1 as the most common in 14 MENA countries and SGT D7 dominance in the Maghreb. The highest prevalence of antiviral drug resistance was observed against lamivudine (4.5%) and telbivudine (4.3%). The proportion of domestic phylogenetic clustering was the highest for SGT D7 (61.9%), followed by SGT D2 (28.2%) and genotype E (25.7%). The largest fraction of domestic clusters with evidence of inter-country spread within the MENA was seen in SGT D7 (81.3%). Small networks (containing 3-14 sequences) dominated among domestic phylogenetic clusters. Specific patterns of HBV genetic diversity were seen in the MENA with SGT D1 dominance in the Levant, Iran, and Turkey; SGT D7 dominance in the Maghreb; and extensive diversity in Saudi Arabia and Egypt. A low prevalence of lamivudine, telbivudine, and entecavir drug resistance was observed in the region, with almost an absence of resistance to tenofovir and adefovir. Variable proportions of phylogenetic clustering indicated prominent domestic transmission of SGT D7 (particularly in the Maghreb) and relatively high levels of virus mobility in SGT D1.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) non-B subtype infections occurred in Belgium since the 1980s, mainly amongst migrants and heterosexuals, whereas subtype B predominated in men-having-sex-with-men (MSM). In the last decade, the diagnosis of F1 sub-subtype in particular has increased substantially, which prompted us to perform a detailed reconstruction of its epidemiological history. To this purpose, the Belgian AIDS Reference Laboratories collected HIV-1 pol sequences from all sub-subtype F1-infected patients for whom genotypic drug resistance testing was requested as part of routine clinical follow-up. This data was complemented with HIV-1 pol sequences from countries with a high burden of F1 infections or a potential role in the global origin of sub-subtype F1. The molecular epidemiology of the Belgian subtype F1 epidemic was investigated using Bayesian phylogenetic inference and transmission dynamics were characterized based on birth-death models. F1 sequences were retained from 297 patients diagnosed and linked to care in Belgium between 1988 and 2015. Phylogenetic inference indicated that among the 297 Belgian F1 sequences, 191 belonged to a monophyletic group that mainly contained sequences from people likely infected in Belgium (OR 26.67, 95% CI 9.59–74.15), diagnosed in Flanders (OR 7.28, 95% CI 4.23–12.53), diagnosed at a recent stage of infection (OR 7.19, 95% CI 2.88-17.95) or declared to be MSM (OR 34.8, 95% CI 16.0–75.6). Together with a Spanish clade, this Belgian clade was embedded in the genetic diversity of Brazilian subtype F1 strains and most probably emerged after one or only a few migration events from Brazil to the European continent before 2002. The origin of the Belgian outbreak was dated back to 2002 (95% higher posterior density 2000–2004) and birth-death models suggested that its extensive growth had been controlled (Re < 1) by 2012, coinciding with a time period where delay in antiretroviral treatment initiation substantially declined. In conclusion, phylogenetic reconstruction of the Belgian HIV-1 sub-subtype F1 epidemic illustrates the introduction and substantial dissemination of viral strains in a geographically restricted risk group that was most likely controlled by effective treatment as prevention.

Introduction: Brucellosis causes a necrotic and inflammatory infection in humans and animals, and is among the world's most common zoonotic diseases. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence of Brucella antibodies and compare serological methods in Turkish Republic of North Cyprus, where animal husbandry is common. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted between December 2017 and February 2018 and included veterinarians (n=50), animal caregivers (n=109), butchers (n=65), and a control group of individuals who had no connection with animals (n=100). Serum samples from the participants were analyzed with serological techniques including Rose Bengal test (RBT), standard tube agglutination test (STA) and ELISA; IgG and IgM methods. The sensitivity and specificity of the methods used were estimated by considering ELISA (IgG and/or IgM) results as reference/golden standard. Results: Of 27 patients (8.3%) patients who had positive results from at least one of the serological tests, 21 (6.5%) had positive RBT, 15 (4.6%) had positive STA and 10 (3.1%) had positive ELISA (IgG and/or IgM). Six (28%) patients with negative RBT results were found to be positive in ELISA. Seventeen samples (80.9%) were RBT-positive but ELISA- negative. Conclusion: These data suggest that Brucella infection is at low rate in the Turkish Republic of North Cyprus. Laboratory diagnosis should be supported by tests such as seroconversion for low titers on STA, or tests such as ELISA. Only two cases were reported to the Ministry of Health Statistics Unit in 2013.

Background: Drug resistance development is an expected problem during treatment with protease inhibitors (PIs), this is largely due to the fact that Pls are low-genetic barrier drugs. Resistance-associated variants (RAVs) however may also occur naturally, and prior to treatment with Pls, the clinical impact of this basal resistance remains unknown. In Turkey, there is yet to be an investigation into the hepatitis C (HCV) drug associated resistance to oral antivirals. Materials and methods: 178 antiviral-naïve patients infected with HCV genotype 1 were selected from 27 clinical centers of various geographical regions in Turkey and included in the current study. The basal NS3 Pls resistance mutations of these patients were analyzed. Results: In 33 (18.5%) of the patients included in the study, at least one mutation pattern that can cause drug resistance was identified. The most frequently detected mutation pattern was T54S while R109K was the second most frequently detected. Following a more general examination of the patients studied, telaprevir (TVR) resistance in 27 patients (15.2%), boceprevir (BOC) resistance in 26 (14.6%) patients, simeprevir (SMV) resistance in 11 (6.2%) patients and faldaprevir resistance in 13 (7.3%) patients were detected. Our investigation also revealed that rebound developed in the presence of a Q80K mutation and amongst two V55A mutations following treatment with TVR, while no response to treatment was detected in a patient with a R55K mutation. Conclusion: We are of the opinion that drug resistance analyses can be beneficial and necessary in revealing which variants are responsible for pre-treatment natural resistance and which mutations are responsible for the viral breakthrough that may develop during the treatment.

Objective: To detect the subtype characterization and drug-resistant mutations in HIV-1 strains after the refugee movement from Syria to Turkey between 2011 and 2014 in south east border lines. Methods: A total of 65 patients were included in this study, of which 57 (88%) patients were antiretroviral therapy-naive patients. HIV-1 RNA was detected and quantified by real-time PCR assay. HIV-1 subtypes and circulating recombinant forms (CRFs) were identified by phylogenetic analysis (neighbor-joining method), and drug-resistant mutations were analyzed. Results: Three major HIV groups were indicated. Two of these groups were located in subtype B. The other group showed heterogeneity. Subtype B (48/65, 73.8%), followed by CRFs (12/65, 18.5%) was the most common strain. Subtype of CRFs consisted of CRF01_AE (9/65, 13.8%) and CRF02_AG (3/65, 4.6%). Subtype C (1/65, 1.5%), sub-subtypes A1 (2/65, 3.1%) and F1 (2/65, 3.1%) were also detected with low prevalence. The rate of overall primary antiretroviral resistance was 4.9% (3/61). Drug-resistant rate for non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors was 4.9%. The thymidine analogue mutation rate was 13.1% (8/61). Conclusions: HIV molecular epidemiology studies are necessary to determine transmission patterns and spread. Subtype B and CRF01_AE, CRF02_AG are the most prevalent strains in the south-east of Turkey. However, subtype C, sub-subtypes A1 and F1 are of low prevalence but persist in the south-east of Turkey. In the near future, changing of HIV epidemiology will be possible in Turkey due to migration movement in border lines and resistance testing will play an important role in HIV management.

Background: The use of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin (PegIFN/RBV) for the retreatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection without a sustained virological response (SVR) prior to PegIFN/RBV treatment has resulted in low success rates. Aims: To investigate the efficacy and safety of telaprevir (TVR) in combination with PegIFN/RBV in patients infected with HCV genotypes 1 and 4 who were previously treated with PegIFN/RBV and failed to achieve SVR. Study Design: Multi-center, retrospective, cross-sectional study. Methods: The study included 111 patients: 80 prior relapsers, 25 prior null responders, and six prior partial responders to PegIFN/RBV treatment. The patients were given TVR/PegIFN/RBV for 12 weeks, followed by a 12-week PegIFN/RBV treatment; virological response results were assessed at weeks 4, 12, and 24. Treatment was discontinued in patients with HCV RNA >1000 IU/mL at week 4 or with negative RNA results at week 4 but >1000 IU/mL at week 12. Rapid virological response (RVR), early virological response (EVR), extended rapid virological response (eRVR), and virological response at 24th week of treatment were evaluated. The side effects of combination therapy and the rates of treatment discontinuation were investigated. Results: The mean age of the patients was 56.02±9.96 years and 45.9% were male. Ninety-one percent of the patients were infected with viral genotype 1, 69.6% with the interleukin (IL) 28B genotype CT and 20.2% were cirrhotic. The RVR rate was 86.3% in prior relapsers, 56% in prior null responders, and 50% in prior partial responders (p=0.002). EVR rates in those groups were 91.3%, 56%, and 83.3%, respectively (p

Introduction. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection in hemodialysis (HD) patients is a major concern, but limited information exists on the HBV genotyping in patients on maintenance HD in Turkey.Aim. To investigate the genotype and subgenotype distribution of HBV in Turkish HD patients with chronic hepatitis B.Material and methods. A total of 248 HBsAg positive patients undergoing long-term HD from all regions of Turkey were included in this study. HBV genotypes were determined by phylogenetic analysis and by genotyping tools.Results. HBV DNA was detected in 94/248 (38%) of the patients. Among the study patients, genotype D of HBV was predominant (99%) and one patient (1%) was infected with genotype G. The majority (82%) of HBV genotype D branched into subgenotype D1, and also in ayw2 HBsAg subtype clusters in the phylogenetic tree. However, 10% and 8% of the strains branched into subgenotype D2 (also in ayw3 HBsAg subtype cluster) and subgenotype D3 clusters, respectively.Conclusion. In conclusion, HBV genotyping should be routinely applied to HD patients to establish a baseline. Determination of genotypes/subgenotypes of HBV may provide robust epidemiological data related to their circulation as well as their transmissibility.

Background: Pegylated interferon and ribavirin combination therapy remain the first-line treatment for chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. In contrast to the large number of studies in treatment-naive patients, the effectiveness of retreatment in patients who have previously failed pegylated interferon based therapy is not much reported. Objectives: The aim of this retrospective study was to focus on the efficacy of pegylated interferon alpha and ribavirin in retreated chronic hepatitis C patients. Patients and Methods: All patients were treated with pegylated interferon alpha either 2a (180 μg) or 2b (1.5μg/kg) subcutaneously once weekly for a 48-week period, plus ribavirin 1000-1200 mg/day. The patient who had a negative HCV RNA at the end of 48 weeks were followed up for 24 weeks, and the patients who relapsed in the post-treatment follow-up period of 24 weeks were treated again with pegylated interferon alpha; but if the first treatment was administered with pegylated interferon alpha 2a, the second was administered with pegylated interferon alpha 2b and if pegylated interferon alpha 2b, then the second with pegylated interferon alpha 2a. Results: We evaluated the outcome of our patients with chronic HCV who achieved a viral response at the end of the therapy, but did not achive sustained virologic response; 54% (38/70) of patients did achieve sustained virologic response, while 46% (32/70) of patients did not (eight patients did not achieve early virologic response, five patients were nonresponders at 24th week of the treatment, the remaining 19 patient had negative HCV at the end of the therapy but did not achieve sustained virologic response). We began from 19 patients to 8 patients, who had negative HCV RNA at the end of the treatment, but did not achieve sustained virologic response, interferon plus ribavirin therapy again. If the patient had interferon alpha 2a, we gave in the second tour alpha 2b; and if alpha 2b, then alpha 2a. The early virologic response of these nine patients were found to be 63% (5/8). These 5 patients who had rapid virologic response and early virologic response at the second therapy achieved sustained virologic response this time. Conclusions: These findings suggest that the standard 48-week treatment is insufficient and that an extended course of treatment may be necessary. Relapse is a poorly understood clinical outcome in the treatment of chronic HCV patients. Retreament can give a chance to some patients specially who have early virologic response and negative HCV RNA at the end of the first therapy.