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CXCR5 + CD8 T cells have attracted significant interest within multiple areas of immunology, cancer, and infection. This is in part due to their apparent dual functionality. These cells perform as cytotoxic cells in a variety of infection states including LCMV, HBV, HIV and SIV. However, CXCR5 + CD8 T cells also associate with B cells in peripheral organs and function to stimulate B cell proliferation, antibody/B cell receptor class-switch, and antibody production. CXCR5 + CD8 T cells are similar to CXCR5 + CD4 T follicular helpers in their genetic make-up, B cell interactions, and functionality despite possessing elevated programmed cell death 1 and cytotoxic proteins. Within cancer CXCR5 + CD8 T cells have risen as potential prognostic markers for overall survival and are functionally cytotoxic within tumor microenvironments. In inflammatory disease and autoimmunity, CXCR5 + CD8 T cells are implicated in disease progression. During viral infection and cancer, CXCR5 expression on CD8 T cells generally is indicative of progenitor memory stem-like exhausted cells, which are more responsive to immune checkpoint blockade therapy. The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors to overcome immune exhaustion in cancer, and subsequent consequence of immune adverse events, highlights the dual nature of the cellular immune response. This review will detail the functionality of CXCR5 + CD8 T cells in cancer and autoimmunity with potential repercussions during immune checkpoint blockade therapy discussed., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Turner, Mullins and Hoyer.)

Follicular CXCR5+ PD-1+ CD8 T cells (CD8 Tfc) arise in multiple models of systemic autoimmunity yet their functional contribution to disease remains in debate. Here we define the follicular localization and functional interactions of CD8 Tfc with B cells during autoimmune disease. The absence of functional T regulatory cells in autoimmunity allows for CD8 Tfc development that then expands with lymphoproliferation. CD8 Tfc are identifiable within the lymph nodes and spleen during systemic autoimmunity, but not during tissue-restricted autoimmune disease. Autoimmune CD8 Tfc cells are polyfunctional, producing helper cytokines IL-21, IL-4, and IFNγ while maintaining cytolytic proteins CD107a, granzyme B, and TNF. During autoimmune disease, IL-2-KO CD8 T cells infiltrate the B cell follicle and germinal center, including the dark zone, and in vitro induce activation-induced cytidine deaminase in naïve B cells via IL-4 secretion. CD8 Tfc represent a unique CD8 T cell population with a diverse effector cytokine repertoire that can contribute to pathogenic autoimmune B cell response., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

IL-2Rα, in part, comprises the high affinity receptor for IL-2, a cytokine important in immune proliferation, activation, and regulation. IL-2Rα deficient mice (IL-2Rα-KO) develop systemic autoimmune disease and die from severe anemia between 18 and 80 days of age. These mice develop kinetically distinct autoimmune progression, with approximately a quarter dying by 21 days of age and half dying after 30 days. This research aims to define immune parameters and cytokine signaling that distinguish cohorts of IL-2Rα-KO mice that develop early- versus late-stage autoimmune disease. To investigate these differences, we evaluated complete blood counts (CBC), antibody binding of RBCs, T cell numbers and activation, hematopoietic progenitor changes, and signaling kinetics, during autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) and bone marrow failure. We identified several alterations that, when combined, correlate to disease kinetics. Early onset disease correlates with anti-RBC antibodies, lower hematocrit, and reduced IL-7 signaling. CD8 regulatory T cells (Tregs) have enhanced apoptosis in early disease. Further, early and late end stage disease, while largely similar, had several differences suggesting distinct mechanisms drive autoimmune disease kinetics. Therefore, IL-2Rα-KO disease pathology rates, driven by T cell signaling, promote effector T cell activation and expansion and Treg dysfunction.

CD8 T cells can play both a protective and pathogenic role in inflammation and autoimmune development. Recent studies have highlighted the ability of CD8 T cells to function as T follicular helper (Tfh) cells in the germinal center in the context of infection. However, whether this phenomenon occurs in autoimmunity and contributes to autoimmune pathogenesis is largely unexplored. In this study, we show that CD8 T cells acquire a CD4 Tfh profile in the absence of functional regulatory T cells in both the IL-2-deficient and scurfy mouse models. Depletion of CD8 T cells mitigates autoimmune pathogenesis in IL-2-deficient mice. CD8 T cells express the B cell follicle-localizing chemokine receptor CXCR5, a principal Tfh transcription factor Bcl6, and the Tfh effector cytokine IL-21. CD8 T cells localize to the B cell follicle, express B cell costimulatory proteins, and promote B cell differentiation and Ab isotype class switching. These data reveal a novel contribution of autoreactive CD8 T cells to autoimmune disease, in part, through CD4 follicular-like differentiation and functionality., (Copyright © 2018 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.)