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AbstrakAdsorpsi zat warna basic red 18 dan direct black 38 dengan adsorben dari serat pinang telah diteliti. Morfologi dan gugus fungsi permukaan serat pinang dianalisa dengan Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) dan scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Penelitian ini fokus pada mekanisme adsorpsi dan pengaruh dosis adsorben. Koefisien korelasi (R2) dianalisis dengan menggunakan regresi linier. Mekanisme adsorpsi dilakukan dengan menggunakan dua model isoterm, yaitu isoterm Langmuir dan Freundlich. Hasil kajian menunjukkan bahwa model Freundlich adalah yang paling sesuai diaplikasikan untuk adsorpsi zat warna basic red 18 dan direct black 38. Karena model Freundlich mampu menginterpretasikan proses adsorpsi zat warna basic red 18 dan direct black 38 dengan baik, maka sistem adsorpsi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah heterogen. Kapasitas adsorpsi untuk basic red 18 pada berbagai berat adsorben (seperti: 1, 2, dan 3 g) menggunakan model Freundlich adalah 0,234 L/g; 0,101 L/g dan 0,093 L/g. Sementara kapasitas untuk direct black 38 adalah 0,360 L/g; 0,374 L/g dan 0,141 L/g.

The present study was carried out to optimize process parameters to reduce soap formation and maximize the yield of high oleic oleic palm oil-based trimethylolpropane triesters (TMPTE) synthesis by using response surface methodology (RSM). The selected affecting parameters were reaction temperature (90-140°C), reaction time (30-90 min) and concentration of sodium methoxide catalyst (0.28-0.60 wt%). The statistical analysis suggested that all single parameters had significant effects on TMPTE yield. However, only two single parameters (catalyst and temperature) had significant effects on the fatty soaps amount. All interactive parameters had significant impact on the TMPTE yield but only the interactive term of temperature and time showed the clear influence on the formation of fatty soaps. The optimum process conditions were obtained with high oleic TMPTE yield of 80.1 wt% and fatty soap product of 85.6 mg/g: sodium methoxide catalyst at 0.28 wt%; reaction temperature at 130°C; reaction time at 53 min.

The experimental studies have shown that a pulsed loop reactor can be used to successfully reduce the reaction time for the transesterification of oils and fats. In the present study, the transesterification of palm methyl ester (PME) and trimethylolpropane (TMP) to produce palm oil based TMP ester was conducted using the vacuum operated pulsed loop reactor. The reaction was catalyzed with sodium methoxide solution in methanol. The influences of five operating variables such as vacuum pressure, catalyst loading, molar ratio of high oleic PME to TMP, reaction temperature and oscillatory speed on the yield of TMP esters and unwanted fatty soap formation were examined. The optimum conditions for the reaction were found at 120 °C, 20 mbar, 3.9:1 M ratio of PME:TMP, 1.0 wt% catalyst solution and 180 rpm oscillatory speed. The product containing 95 wt% TMP triester was successfully synthesized in 1 h with 167 mg/g of fatty soap. The physicochemical properties of the TMP esters obtained using pulse reactor were comparable to characteristics of high oleic TMP esters.

Trimethylolpropane triesters are biodegradable synthetic lubricant base oil alternative to mineral oils, polyalphaolefins and diesters. These oils can be produced from trimethylolpropane (TMP) and fatty acid methyl esters via chemical or enzymatic catalyzed synthesis methods. In the present study, a commercial palm oil derived winter grade biodiesel (ME18) was evaluated as a viable and sustainable methyl ester source for the synthesis of high oleic trimethylolpropane triesters (HO-TMPTE). ME18 has fatty acid profile containing 86.8% oleic acid, 8.7% linoleic acid with the remaining minor concentration of palmitic acid, stearic acid and linolenic acid. It’s high oleic property makes it superior to produce synthetic lubricant base oil that fulfills both the good low temperature property as well as good oxidative stability. The synthetic base oil produced had a viscosity of 44.3 mm2/s at 40°C meeting the needs for ISO 46 oils. It also exhibited an excellent viscosity index of 219 that is higher than some other commercial brands of trimethylolpropane trioleate. Properties of base oil such as cloud point, density, acid value, demulsibility and soap content were also examined. The oil was then used in the formulation of tapping oil and appraised in term of adaptability, stability and field test performance.

The present study was performed to optimize reaction parameters for the transesterification reaction of palm oil methyl ester and pentaerythritol by using response surface methodology (RSM). The affecting parameters were selected as temperature (140–190°C), amount of catalyst (0.5–1.5 wt%), palm oil methyl ester-to-pentaerythritol molar ratio (4:1–5:1) and reaction time (1–5 h), in order to produce pentaerythritol ester (tetraester). The optimum operating conditions; temperature at 158°C; amount of catalyst, 1.19 wt%; molar ratio, 4.5 and 1 h of reaction time were obtained with the result of the pentaerythritol ester's yield of 40.13%. The interaction parameter of the catalyst amount with the palm oil methyl ester-to-pentaerythritol molar ratio was found to be the most significant amongst all of the interaction parameters. The pentaerythritol ester properties were analyzed and compared with the commercial oven chain lubricant. The results indicated that the pentaerythritol ester is able to withstand a high temperature environment with a flash point of 302°C and viscosity of 12.7 cSt at 100°C.

The use of vegetable oil-based ester as a base fluid in synthetic drilling fluid has become a trend in drilling operations due to its environmental advantages. The transesterification reaction of palm oil methyl ester (POME) with 2-ethylhexanol (2EH) produced 98% of palm oil-based ethylhexyl ester in less than 30 minutes. Since the transesterification reaction of POME with 2EH is a reversible reaction, its kinetics was studied in the presence of excess EH and under vacuum. The POME-to-EH molar ratio and vacuum pressure were held constant at 1:2 and 1.5 mbar respectively and the effects of temperature (70 to 110°C) were investigated. Using excess of EH and continual withdrawal of methanol via vacuum promoted the reaction to complete in less than 10 minutes. The rate constant of the reaction (k) obtained from the kinetics study was in the range of 0.44 to 0.66 s–1 and the activation energy was 15.6 kJ.mol–1. The preliminary investigations on the lubrication properties of drilling mud formulated with palm oil-based 2EH ester indicated that the base oil has a great potential to substitute the synthetic ester-based oil for drilling fluid. Its high kinematic viscosity provides better lubrication to the drilling fluid compared to other ester-based oils. The pour point (–15°C) and flash point (204°C) values are superior for the drilling fluid formulation. The plastic viscosity, HPHT filtrate loss and emulsion stability of the drilling fluid had given acceptable values, while gel strength and yield point could be improved by blending it with proper additives.

Due to growing concerns such as increasing energy demand and the environmental issues-related fossil energy problems caused by consumption of fossil energy, it is needed to focus on nonedible oils for biodiesel production. In the present research work, the seed oil of Momordica charantia (M. charantia) was for the first time appraised as possible nonedible oil for synthesis of biodiesel. M. charantia has oil content (36.10 ± 4.20%), high acid value (1.82 mg KOH g−1), and its oil enable base-catalyzed transesterified for biodiesel production after acid pretreatment. It was transesterified under standard conditions at 6:1 molar ratio of methanol to oil; sodium methoxide (1.00 wt.% in relation to oil mass) as a catalyst; 60°C reaction temperature and 90 min of reaction time. At optimum conditions biodiesel yield of 93.2% was acquired. The reaction followed first order kinetics. The activation energy (E A) was 254.5 kcal mol−1 and the rate constant value was 1.30 × 10−4 min−1 at 60°C. Gas chromatography investigation of M. charantia seed oil methyl esters (MSOMEs) depicted that the fatty acid composition comprises a high proportion of mono-unsaturated fatty acids (64.11 ± 5.02%). MSOMEs were also characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared and 1H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy. The tested fuel properties of the MSOMEs, except oxidative stability, were conformed to EN 14214 and ASTM D6751 standards. The low-value oxidative stability of MSOMEs can be solved by adding antioxidants additives. In summary, M. charantia oil has potential as nonedible raw material for biodiesel production.

Research on the use of Jatropha curcas triglycerides as biodiesel feedstock has received worldwide attention due to its inherent characteristics. Unlike palm oil, J. curcas oil is not edible, and thus, it will not disturb the food supply. However, to the researcher's experiences with the synthesis of J. curcas, oil-based biodiesel has shown that the fuel characteristics depend largely on the type of alcohol used as the excess reactants. Transesterification reaction is chosen for this process with sodium methoxide as the catalyst. Comparison studies on the yield of esters using methanol and ethanol, as well as the impacts on the reaction rate are discussed. The effects of reaction time and molar ratio on the reaction conversion are also examined. The determination of reaction yield is based on the conversion of triglycerides into alkyl esters as the main product. The findings are described as follows: the highest percentage yield of product is attained at 96% for methanol as an excess reactant, and this is 90% when ethanol is used. The optimum conditions of parameters are achieved at 6:1 molar ratio of alcohol to triglycerides, 50 min of reaction time and reaction temperature of 65°C for methanol and 75°C for ethanol. The biodiesel properties of both ester fuels were determined according to the existing standards for biodiesel and compared to the characteristics of diesel fuel.

Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) has a high content of free fatty acids and has been used extensively as a feedstock in biodiesel production. In the present study, the transesterification reaction of JCO to Jatropha curcas methyl ester (biodiesel) was performed in a continuous pulsed loop reactor under atmospheric conditions. The JCO was pre-treated prior to the reaction to reduce the free fatty acid content to below 1% (w/w). The operating parameters of the loop reactor were optimised based on the conversion of the JCO to Jatropha curcas biodiesel and included reaction temperature, molar ratio of oil to MeOH, reaction time and oscillation frequency. The findings show that the highest reaction conversion of 99.7% (w/w) was achieved using KOH catalyst and 98.8% conversion was obtained using NaOCH3 catalyst. The optimal operating conditions were a molar ratio of 6:1, an oscillation frequency of 6 Hz, temperature of 60 °C, feedstock FFA content of 0.5% (w/w) and only 10 min of reaction time. As a commercial commodity, the physical properties of biodiesel were analysed, and they compared well with the characteristics of fossil-based diesel fuel.

Jatropha curcas L. biodiesel (methyl esters) was successfully synthesized from esterified Jatropha curcas L. oil (JCO) via transesterification process using an oscillatory flow reactor (OFR). Alkaline catalysts were used in this process, and the effects of operating variables such as molar ratio, reaction temperature, reaction time, and the percentage of catalyst loading were investigated. The reactions were carried out under atmospheric pressure. The reaction temperatures were varied between 50 to 70 °C. The effects of two alkaline catalysts namely potassium hydroxide (KOH) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and molar ratio of methanol to JCO on reaction yield were investigated. The optimum conditions for batch mode in the presence of KOH catalyst were as follows: reaction temperature at 65 °C, reaction time at 30 min, molar ratio at 6:1, and catalyst amount at 1.0% w/w. The maximum reaction conversion attainable using batch process was at 99%. The design of the OFR was carried out based on the principle of maintaining geometric and dynamic similarity of various dimensionless groups. This was followed by the application of other empirical design correlations specific to the oscillatory flow system. Using the designed OFR, the transesterification of JCO was accomplished in the presence of KOH and NaOH catalysts at the optimal conditions of 60 °C, molar ratio at 6:1, reaction time of 15 min and oscillation frequency of 6 Hz. The maximum conversion obtained was 99.7% and 90% for KOH and NaOH catalysts, respectively. The OFR performed better than the batch reactor due to its advantages in achieving a perfect superimposed mixing of fluids by forcing the upstream into the baffles area, thus a shorter time was required to complete the reaction. One of the major problems associated with the use of biodiesel, especially prepared from palm oil, is its poor low temperature flow property. Jatropha curcas L. biodiesel, however, has a good low temperature property, comparable to conven

The Jatropha curcas methyl ester can be produced through a transesterification reaction by using an alkaline catalyst with an alcohol as the excess reactant. The reaction was carried out in a batch mixed reactor under various operating condition. The kinetics study on the transesterification of Jatropha curcas-based triglycerides with methanol was carried out under various temperatures (323, 328, 333 and 338 K). The conversion of triglycerides into methyl esters follows the first-order mechanism for the forward reaction. The reaction rate constants were determined and finally the rate constants were plotted against temperatures for calculating the activation energies. The values of kTG ranges from 0.11 to 0.17 and the values of kDG are from 0.07 to 0.20 respectively. The activation energies for stepwise reactions for transesterification of Jatropha curcas-based triglycerides and diglycerides with methanol are 27.38 and 46.72 kJ mol-1. Future work should examine the real step-wise reaction kinetics in Jatropha curcas biodiesel production under acid catalyst.

An important consideration in the feedstock selection for biodiesel production is the content of free fatty acid (FFA) in the oil. In this project, the Jatropha curcas oil (JCO) was used as the feedstock for producing biodiesel. To be used as a feedstock, the JCO should contain a low pe rcentage of FFA so that the oil can directly be utilized in a transesterification reaction with methanol in the presence of an alkaline catalyst. Since, the free fatty acid contents in the JCO were found to vary from 2.5% to 65%, the FFA content in the oil was reduced via esterification of JCO with methanol and sulphuric acid as a catalyst. In this study, the effects of esterification parameters namely the time of reaction, temperature, catalyst-to-JCO ratio and methanol-to-JCO ratio on the final free fatty acid content of JCO were studied. The final FFA content of JCO was successfully lowered to 0.5% at 60°C under atmospheric pressure, using 1.0% of catalyst-to-JCO ratio, 60% w/w of methanol-to-JCO ratio, and 18 0 minutes of reaction time. Without prior removal of FFA, a large quantity of fatty soap was formed in the reaction and the entire products become gel-like materials. However, after using two-steps reaction consisting of the esterification followed by transesterification, the yield and quality of product are markedly enhanced.

Plant oil extracted from a non edible plant has the potential application as biodegradable lubricant. Such plant as toxic contained Jatropha curcas inhibits human consumption and thus making it suitable for such application since it does not compete with the food production. However, high content of free fatty acids (FFA) in the jatropha oil (triglycerides) is found to have significant effect in the production of bio-lubricant. The formation of fatty acids occurs when the triglycerides are hydrolysed with moisture due to poor storage and handling. This paper discusses the techniques performed to produce high yield of bio-lubricant from jatropha oil containing high content of FFA up to 30%. It is reported that more than 80% yield of jatropha bio-lubricant was successfully achieved. Lubricity characteristics such as the pour point, viscosity and thermal oxidative stability for the produced jatropha bio-lubricant are found to be comparable with the other vegetable oil based lubricants.