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Increasing evidence indicates that photobiomodulation, based on tissue irradiation with photons in the red to near-infrared spectrum, may be an effective therapeutic approach to central nervous system disorders. Although nervous system functionality has been shown to be affected by photons in animal models, as well as in preliminary evidence in healthy subjects or in patients with neuropsychiatric disorders, the mechanisms involved in the photobiomodulation effects have not yet been clarified. We previously observed that photobiomodulation could stimulate glutamate release. Here, we investigate mechanisms potentially involved in the glutamate-releasing effect of photons from adult mouse cerebrocortical nerve terminals. We report evidence of photon ability to induce an exocytotic vesicular release of glutamate from the terminals of glutamatergic neurons in a power-dependent way. It can be hypothesized that photobiomodulation, depending on the potency, can release glutamate in a potentially neurotoxic or physiological range.

Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is a predominant water channel expressed in astrocytes in the mammalian brain. AQP4 is crucial for the regulation of homeostatic water movement across the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Although the molecular mechanisms regulating AQP4 levels in the cerebral cortex under pathological conditions have been intensively investigated, those under normal physiological conditions are not fully understood. Here we demonstrate that AQP4 is selectively expressed in astrocytes in the mouse cerebral cortex during development. BMP signaling was preferentially activated in AQP4-positive astrocytes. Furthermore, activation of BMP signaling by in utero electroporation markedly increased AQP4 levels in the cerebral cortex, and inhibition of BMP signaling strongly suppressed them. These results indicate that BMP signaling alters AQP4 levels in the mouse cerebral cortex during development.

Astrocytes, a highly heterogeneous population of glial cells, serve as essential regulators of brain development and homeostasis. The heterogeneity of astrocyte populations underlies the diversity in their functions. In addition to the typical mammalian astrocyte architecture, the cerebral cortex of humans exhibits a radial distribution of interlaminar astrocytes in the supragranular layers. These primate‐specific interlaminar astrocytes are located in the superficial layer and project long processes traversing multiple layers of the cerebral cortex. However, due to the lack of accessible experimental models, their functional properties and their role in regulating neuronal circuits remain unclear. Here we modeled human interlaminar astrocytes in humanized glial chimeric mice by engrafting astrocytes differentiated from human‐induced pluripotent stem cells into the mouse cortex. This model provides a novel platform for understanding neuron‐glial interaction and its alterations in neurological diseases., We engrafted RFP‐expressing astrocytes differentiated from hiPSCs into the cortex of immunodeficient mice neonatally. Nine months post engraftment, the human astrocytes in the superficial cortex developed into interlaminar astrocytes that mimicked the interlaminar astrocytes architecture of the adult human cortex. This chimeric mouse model will enable the study of human‐specific interlaminar astrocytes in vivo.

SUMMARYAstrocytes have complex roles in central nervous system (CNS) health and disease. Underlying these roles is an elaborate architecture based on frequent, extremely fine, but seemingly haphazard branches, as well as prominent features including tripartite synaptic complexes and perivascular endfeet. While broad categories of structures in astrocytes are known, the fundamental building blocks that compose them and their organizing principles have yet to be adequately defined. This is largely due to the absence of high-resolution datasets that can reveal nanoscopic features of astrocytes (i.e. 10-20nm diameter in x, y, and z) and a lack of computational approaches that can effectively interrogate astrocyte shape, organization, and nanoarchitecture. Here, we produced and analyzed multiple, high-resolution datasets of layer 2/3 mouse somatosensory cortex using focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (8nm intervals) and computer vision approaches to provide a principled, quantitative analysis of astrocytic nanoarchitecture. A decomposition of astrocytes into fundamental ‘parts’ led to the discovery of unique structural components, recurring structural motifs, and assembly of parts into an organized hierarchy. New relationships were also discerned between astrocytic processes and other CNS microanatomy including mitochondria, tripartite synapses, and cerebrovasculature. By deploying computational resources to quantitatively understand the organizing principles and nanoarchitecture of astrocytes, this study reveals the specialized anatomical adaptations of these complex cells within the CNS.One Sentence SummaryUsing high-resolution serial electron microscopy datasets and computer vision, this study provides a systematic analysis of astrocytic nanoarchitecture from multiple samples of layer 2/3 of adult mouse neocortex, and presents quantitative evidence that astrocytes organize their morphology into purposeful, classifiable assemblies with unique structural and subcellular organelle adaptations related to their physiological functions.

Disabilities resulting from traumatic brain injury (TBI) strongly correlate with the cytoarchitectonic part of the brain damaged, lesion area, and type of lesion. We developed a Web application to estimate the location of the lesion on mouse cerebral cortex caused by TBI induced by lateral fluid-percussion injury. The application unfolds user-determined TBI lesion measurements, e.g., from histologic sections to a reference template, and estimates the total lesion area, including the percentage of cortex damaged in different cytoarchitectural cortical regions. The resulting lesion can be visualized on a two-dimensional map of mouse cerebral cortex. The application also visualizes the development of the lesion over time when measurements from multiple time points are available. The web application was validated by comparing its performance to the manual method. The total area of the cortical lesion was similar between the manual (9.19 ± 0.66 mm2, range 4.25–14.93 mm2) and the automated analysis (9.27 ± 0.66 mm2, range 4.50–15.10 mm2) (p = 0.938). The results of the manual and automated analyses were strongly correlated (r = 0.999, p

Neurogenesis is a complex process that depends on the delicate regulation of spatial and temporal gene expression. In our previous study, we found that transcribed ultra-conserved regions (T-UCRs), a class of long non-coding RNAs that contain UCRs, are expressed in the developing nervous systems of mice, rhesus monkeys, and humans. In this study, we first detected the full-length sequence of T-uc.189, revealing that it was mainly concentrated in the ventricular zone (VZ) and that its expression decreased as the brain matured. Moreover, we demonstrated that knockdown of T-uc.189 inhibited neurogenesis. In addition, we found that T-uc.189 positively regulated the expression of serine-arginine-rich splicing factor 3 (Srsf3). Taken together, our results are the first to demonstrate that T-uc.189 regulates the expression of Srsf3 to maintain normal neurogenesis during cortical development.

Summary Mosaic analysis with double markers (MADM) technology enables concomitant fluorescent cell labeling and induction of uniparental chromosome disomy (UPD) with single-cell resolution. In UPD, imprinted genes are either overexpressed 2-fold or are not expressed. Here, the MADM platform is utilized to probe imprinting phenotypes at the transcriptional level. This protocol highlights major steps for the generation and isolation of projection neurons and astrocytes with MADM-induced UPD from mouse cerebral cortex for downstream single-cell and low-input sample RNA-sequencing experiments. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Laukoter et al. (2020b)., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • Generation of cells with uniparental chromosome disomy (UPD) using MADM technology • Isolation of cells with MADM-induced UPD for single-cell downstream applications • Analysis of cortical cells with MADM-induced UPD using scRNA-seq • Analysis of neurons and astrocytes with MADM-induced UPD to probe genomic imprinting, Mosaic analysis with double markers (MADM) technology enables concomitant fluorescent cell labeling and induction of uniparental chromosome disomy (UPD) with single-cell resolution. In UPD, imprinted genes are either overexpressed 2-fold or are not expressed. Here, the MADM platform is utilized to probe imprinting phenotypes at the transcriptional level. This protocol highlights major steps for the generation and isolation of projection neurons and astrocytes with MADM-induced UPD from mouse cerebral cortex for downstream single-cell and low-input sample RNA-sequencing experiments.

Realgar is a traditional Chinese medicine containing arsenic and has neurotoxicity. This study used realgar exposure mice model, neurobehavioral tests, analytical chemistry, molecular biology and nontargeted lipidomics to explore the mechanism of realgar damages the nervous system. The arsenic contained in realgar passed through the BBB and accumulated in the brain. Neurons, synapses and myelin showed abnormal changes in the cerebral cortex. The number of autophagosomes were incresed as well as levels of MDA, Lp-PLA2, and cPLA2 but the CAT level was significant reduced. Finally, the cognition and memory of mice were decreased. Nontargeted lipidomics detected 34 lipid subclasses including 1603 lipid molecules. The levels of the LPC and LPE were significantly increased. Under the condition of variable importance for the projection (VIP)1 and P0.05, only 28 lipid molecules satisfied the criteria. The lipid molecular markers SM (d36:2), PE (18:2/22:6) and PE (36:3) which were filtered by receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve (AUC0.8 or AUC0.2) were used to identify the neurotoxicity induced by realgar. Therefore, realgar induces neurotoxicity through exacerbating oxidative damage and lipid dysfunction. Providing research basis for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of realgar-induced neurotoxicity.

Summary Astrocytes are particularly promising candidates for reprogramming into neurons, as they maintain some of the original patterning information from their radial glial ancestors. However, to which extent the position of astrocytes influences the fate of reprogrammed neurons remains unknown. To elucidate this, we performed stab wound injury covering an entire neocortical column, including the gray matter (GM) and white matter (WM), and targeted local reactive astrocytes via injecting FLEx switch (Cre-On) adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors into mGFAP-Cre mice. Single proneural factors were not sufficient for adequate reprogramming, although their combination with the nuclear receptor-related 1 protein (Nurr1) improved reprogramming efficiency. Nurr1 and Neurogenin 2 (Ngn2) resulted in high-efficiency reprogramming of targeted astrocytes into neurons that develop lamina-specific hallmarks, including the appropriate long-distance axonal projections. Surprisingly, in the WM, we did not observe any reprogrammed neurons, thereby unveiling a crucial role of region- and layer-specific differences in astrocyte reprogramming., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • AAV can be targeted to reactive astrocytes upon stab wound injury • Expression of Ngn2 and Nurr1 in these astrocytes induces pyramidal neurons • Induced pyramidal neurons acquire correct layer identity and axonal projections • Neurons cannot be induced in the white matter, Neurons dying after brain injury cannot be replaced. Mattugini, Bocchi, et al. show that local astrocytes can be converted into functional neurons acquiring appropriate layer identity and connectivity by expression of neurogenic factors in a mouse model of traumatic brain injury.

Although estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and 17β-estradiol play critical roles in protecting the cerebral cortex from ischemia-induced damage, there has been some controversy about the expression of ERα in this region of the brain. We have examined ERα mRNA and protein levels in the cerebral cortices of female mice at postnatal days 5 and 17 and at 4, 13, and 18 months of age. We found that although ERα transcript levels declined from postnatal day 5 through 18 months of age, ERα protein levels remained stable. Importantly, expression of the E2-regulated progesterone receptor gene was sustained in younger and in older females suggesting that age-related changes in estrogen responsiveness in the cerebral cortex are not due to the absence of ERα protein.

Correction After publication of the original article [1] it was realised that there were errors in figures 2a,b,f,g, which arose as a result of preparing figures from data collected and analysed at the same time as the work reported in [2] (Supplementary Figure 1 of [2]). An updated Fig. 2 is included with this Correction.

BAG3 protein belongs to the family of co-chaperones involved in protein quality control and in the clearance of misfolded proteins [1]. Few studies have addressed BAG3 distribution and function in the central nervous system (CNS) and little is known about the cellular localization of BAG3 during neuronal differentiation in vitro and migration in vivo. Therefore we analysed by immunofluorescence microscopy the cellular distribution of BAG3 in the PC12 cell model treated or not with NGF and in developing and adult cortex of mice brain. Our results shows that BAG3 localizes mainly in vesicle structures of the neuritic domain during cell differentiation, while in undifferentiated cells it appears confined to the cytoplasm near the nuclear membrane. These observations were corroborated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) which revealed that in NGF-differentiated PC12 cells, BAG3 localizes into electron-dense vesicles clustered along the axon and showing the typical aspect of the large dense core vesicles (LDCVs). Interestingly, the change of BAG3 localization during neuronal differentiation was associated only to a slight increase in the total BAG3 immunoreactivity as shown by western blot analysis. In order to provide further insights on the role of BAG3 in neuronal differentiation and migration, we also analysed BAG3 localization in mice developing and adult cerebral cortex. In mouse developing cortex, BAG3 appeared to be intensely expressed in cellular processes of migrating cells, while in adult brain a low expression was detected in neuronal cell bodies and glial cells. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the presence and differential expression of BAG3 might be required for the correct development of the nervous system as well as for the maintenance of protein homeostasis., Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, Vol. 122, No. 1 (Supplement) 2017

The neocortex is a region of the brain that processes all sensory inputs creating appropriate behavioral responses. It is subdivided into functional areas, each with a specific cytoarchitecture, gene expression pattern and connectivity profile. The organization into areas is pre-patterned by the action of areal patterning genes, and subsequently refined by sensory evoked activity. In this study, I have first investigated whether early areal patterning is committed in progenitor and/or post-mitotic cells, and then assessed whether spontaneous neuronal activity is required in establishing correct connectivity between the neocortex and the thalamus, the principal relay station of peripheral sensory inputs. With the help of a series of transgenic mice, my work showed that the function of the areal patterning gene COUP-TFI is sufficient and necessary to organize sensory identity in post-mitotic cells, and that COUP-TFI regulates intrinsic activity properties of cortical neurons, and thus proper integration of thalamic inputs into the somatosensory cortex. In particular, I found that COUP-TFI directly controls the expression of the immediate early gene Egr1, which expression levels strongly depend on neuronal activity. Both COUP-TFI and Egr1 act on the acquisition of the stellate cell morphology of layer 4 neurons, the main targets of thalamic axons and a typical trait of primary somatosensory areas. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that cortical area patterning primordially depends on a genetic program established in post-mitotic cells and that intrinsic genetic and activity properties act together to shape the organization of early circuits in the neocortex., Le néocortex est une région du cerveau qui traite toutes les entrées sensorielles et créé des réponses comportementales. Il est subdivisé en zones fonctionnelles, chacune ayant une cytoarchitecture, un motif d’expression génique et un profil de connectivité spécifiques. L'organisation en zones est pré-modelée par des gènes organisateurs, et ensuite affinée par l’activité sensorielle. Dans cette étude, j'ai étudié d'abord si ce pré-modelage est établi dans les progéniteurs et/ou les cellules post-mitotiques, et si l'activité neuronale spontanée est nécessaire pour l’établissement de la connectivité correcte entre néocortex et thalamus, station relais principale des données sensorielles. Avec l'aide d'une série de souris transgéniques, j’ai montré que la fonction du gène organisateur COUP-TFI est suffisante et nécessaire pour organiser l'identité sensorielle dans les cellules post-mitotiques, et que COUP-TFI régule l'activité intrinsèque des neurones corticaux, influençant la bonne intégration des entrées thalamiques dans le cortex somatosensoriel. J’ai montré que COUP-TFI contrôle directement l'expression du gène Egr1, qui dépend fortement de l'activité neuronale. COUP-TFI et Egr1 agissent sur l'acquisition de la morphologie des cellules étoilées dans les neurones de la couche 4, cibles principales des axones thalamiques et trait typique des zones somatosensoriels primaires. En conclusion, ce travail montre que le pré-modelage cortical dépend primordialement d’un programme génétique établi dans les cellules post-mitotiques et que l'activité intrinsèque et les propriétés génétiques agissent ensemble pour façonner l'organisation des premiers circuits dans le néocortex.

The neocortex is a region of the brain that processes all sensory inputs creating appropriate behavioral responses. It is subdivided into functional areas, each with a specific cytoarchitecture, gene expression pattern and connectivity profile. The organization into areas is pre-patterned by the action of areal patterning genes, and subsequently refined by sensory evoked activity. In this study, I have first investigated whether early areal patterning is committed in progenitor and/or post-mitotic cells, and then assessed whether spontaneous neuronal activity is required in establishing correct connectivity between the neocortex and the thalamus, the principal relay station of peripheral sensory inputs. With the help of a series of transgenic mice, my work showed that the function of the areal patterning gene COUP-TFI is sufficient and necessary to organize sensory identity in post-mitotic cells, and that COUP-TFI regulates intrinsic activity properties of cortical neurons, and thus proper integration of thalamic inputs into the somatosensory cortex. In particular, I found that COUP-TFI directly controls the expression of the immediate early gene Egr1, which expression levels strongly depend on neuronal activity. Both COUP-TFI and Egr1 act on the acquisition of the stellate cell morphology of layer 4 neurons, the main targets of thalamic axons and a typical trait of primary somatosensory areas. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that cortical area patterning primordially depends on a genetic program established in post-mitotic cells and that intrinsic genetic and activity properties act together to shape the organization of early circuits in the neocortex.; Le néocortex est une région du cerveau qui traite toutes les entrées sensorielles et créé des réponses comportementales. Il est subdivisé en zones fonctionnelles, chacune ayant une cytoarchitecture, un motif d’expression génique et un profil de connectivité spécifiques. L'organisation en zones est pré-modelée par des gènes organisateurs, et ensuite affinée par l’activité sensorielle. Dans cette étude, j'ai étudié d'abord si ce pré-modelage est établi dans les progéniteurs et/ou les cellules post-mitotiques, et si l'activité neuronale spontanée est nécessaire pour l’établissement de la connectivité correcte entre néocortex et thalamus, station relais principale des données sensorielles. Avec l'aide d'une série de souris transgéniques, j’ai montré que la fonction du gène organisateur COUP-TFI est suffisante et nécessaire pour organiser l'identité sensorielle dans les cellules post-mitotiques, et que COUP-TFI régule l'activité intrinsèque des neurones corticaux, influençant la bonne intégration des entrées thalamiques dans le cortex somatosensoriel. J’ai montré que COUP-TFI contrôle directement l'expression du gène Egr1, qui dépend fortement de l'activité neuronale. COUP-TFI et Egr1 agissent sur l'acquisition de la morphologie des cellules étoilées dans les neurones de la couche 4, cibles principales des axones thalamiques et trait typique des zones somatosensoriels primaires. En conclusion, ce travail montre que le pré-modelage cortical dépend primordialement d’un programme génétique établi dans les cellules post-mitotiques et que l'activité intrinsèque et les propriétés génétiques agissent ensemble pour façonner l'organisation des premiers circuits dans le néocortex.

Tissue injury mapping (TIM) is developed by using a non-invasive in vivo optical coherence tomography to generate optical attenuation coefficient and microvascular map of the injured tissue. Using TIM, the infarct region development in mouse cerebral cortex during stroke is visualized. Moreover, we demonstrate the in vivo human facial skin structure and microvasculature during an acne lesion development. The results indicate that TIM may help in the study and the treatment of various diseases by providing high resolution images of tissue structural and microvascular changes.

Introduction: Despite more that 60 years of clinical experience, the effective use of lithium for the treatment of mood disorder, in particular bipolarity, is in danger of becoming obsolete. In part, this is because of exaggerated fears surrounding lithium toxicity, acute and long-term tolerability and the encumbrance of life-long plasma monitoring. Recent research has once again positioned lithium centre stage and amplified the importance of understanding its science and how this translates to clinical practice. Objective: The aim of this paper is to provide a sound knowledge base as regards the science and practice of lithium therapy. Method: A comprehensive literature search using electronic databases was conducted along with a detailed review of articles known to the authors pertaining to the use of lithium. Studies were limited to English publications and those dealing with the management of psychiatric disorders in humans. The literature was synthesized and organized according to relevance to clinical practice and understanding. Results: Lithium has simple pharmacokinetics that require regular dosing and monitoring. Its mechanisms of action are complex and its effects are multi-faceted, extending beyond mood stability to neuroprotective and anti-suicidal properties. Its use in bipolar disorder is under-appreciated, particularly as it has the best evidence for prophylaxis, qualifying it perhaps as the only true mood stabilizer currently available. In practice, its risks and tolerability are exaggerated and can be readily minimized with knowledge of its clinical profile and judicious application. Conclusion: Lithium is a safe and effective agent that should, whenever indicated, be used first-line for the treatment of bipolar disorder. A better understanding of its science alongside strategic management of its plasma levels will ensure both wider utility and improved outcomes.

Summary Gene expression studies suggest that differential ion channel expression contributes to differences in rodent versus human neuronal physiology. We tested whether h-channels more prominently contribute to the physiological properties of human compared to mouse supragranular pyramidal neurons. Single-cell/nucleus RNA sequencing revealed ubiquitous HCN1-subunit expression in excitatory neurons in human, but not mouse, supragranular layers. Using patch-clamp recordings, we found stronger h-channel-related membrane properties in supragranular pyramidal neurons in human temporal cortex, compared to mouse supragranular pyramidal neurons in temporal association area. The magnitude of these differences depended upon cortical depth and was largest in pyramidal neurons in deep L3. Additionally, pharmacologically blocking h-channels produced a larger change in membrane properties in human compared to mouse neurons. Finally, using biophysical modeling, we provide evidence that h-channels promote the transfer of theta frequencies from dendrite-to-soma in human L3 pyramidal neurons. Thus, h-channels contribute to between-species differences in a fundamental neuronal property.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid-containing (GABAergic) interneurons play an important role in the function of the cerebral cortex. Through mostly inhibitory mechanisms, interneurons control hyperexcitability, and synchronize and shape the spatiotemporal dynamics of cortical activity underlying various brain functions. Their influence on cortical function is remarkably diverse, a reflection of the large variety of interneuronal populations that exist in the mammalian cortex. Research over the past few years has rapidly transformed our understanding of their mechanisms underlying the generation of different classes of interneurons. In this review, we summarize recent progress on this process, progress which holds the promise of providing a rational framework for their classification, as well as means to understand their role in cortical processing.

Although low-frequency (LF < 10 Hz) activities have been considered as a hallmark of nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, several studies have recently reported LF activities in the membrane potential of cortical neurons from different areas in awake mice. However, little is known about the spatiotemporal organization of LF activities across cortical areas during wakefulness and to what extent it differs during NREM sleep. We have thus investigated the dynamics of LF activities across cortical areas in awake and sleeping mice using chronic simultaneous local field potential recordings. We found that LF activities had higher amplitude in somatosensory and motor areas during quiet wakefulness and decreased in most areas during active wakefulness, resulting in a global state change that was overall correlated with motor activity. However, we also observed transient desynchronization of cortical states between areas, indicating a more local state regulation. During NREM sleep, LF activities had higher amplitude in all areas but slow-wave activity was only poorly correlated across cortical areas. Despite a maximal amplitude during NREM sleep, the coherence of LF activities between areas that are not directly connected dropped from wakefulness to NREM sleep, potentially reflecting a breakdown of long-range cortical integration associated with loss of consciousness.

Multipoint Light Emitting Optical Fibers (MPF) has been recently demonstrated as a versatile tool for spatially addressable optogenetics experiments. Their fabrication has been possible thanks to a number of key microfabrication technologies, in particular the unique nanofabrication capabilities of a Focused Ion Beam. This work provides the complete description of MPF fabrication, detailing the optimization process for each fabrication step.

Arteriolo-arteriolar anastomosis’s role in regulating blood perfusion through penetrating arterioles during stroke is yet to be discovered. We apply ultra-high sensitive optical microangiography (UHS-OMAG) and Doppler optical microangiography (DOMAG) techniques to evaluate vessel diameter and red blood cell velocity changes in large number of pial and penetrating arterioles in relation with arteriolo-arteriolar anastomosis (AAA) during and after focal stroke. Thanks to the high sensitivity of UHS-OMAG, we were able to image pial microvasculature up to capillary level through a cranial window (9 mm2), and DOMAG provided clear image of penetrating arterioles up to 500μm depth. Results showed that penetrating arterioles close to a strong AAA connection dilate whereas penetrating arterioles constrict significantly in weaker AAA regions. These results suggest that AAA plays a major role in active regulation of the pial arterioles, and weaker AAA connections lead to poor blood perfusion to penumbra through penetrating arterioles.