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Ethiopia's Bale Mountains National Park protects the continent's largest remaining alpine environments. This park was first suggested in 1973 to safeguard its great biodiversity, including the endangered Mountain Nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and Red Foxes. Despite these conservation measures, the lack of infrastructure and the enormous area projected have resulted in significant wildlife habitat fragmentation. The purpose of this study is to analyse the habitat suitability of the Mountain Nyala in Bale Mountains National Park using GIS and remote sensing approach in order to inform conservation efforts and assist park management seekers in making policy decisions. To identify potential habitats for the Mountain Nyala, the study employed GIS spatial analyst techniques such as the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Landsat 9 (OLI/TIRS) data, as well as key environmental factors such as vegetation types, soil types, topographic factors (elevation and slope), climate factors (temperature), and proximity factors (distance to settlements, roads, and rivers). The Weights of these factors was calculated using IDRISI32 Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) with the pair-wise comparison method. These weighted factor maps were then integrated through weighted overlay analysis to model wildlife habitat suitability. The analysis revealed five classes of habitat suitability; of the total land area studied, 1326.7 km2 (60%) was deemed suitable for the Mountain Nyala while 881.3 km2 (40%) was unsuitable. Specifically, 327.4 km2 (15%) was classified as highly suitable, 240.7 km2 (11%) as moderately suitable, 758.6 km2 (34%) as marginally suitable, 352.4 km2 (16%) as currently not suitable, and 528.9 km2 (24%) as permanently not suitable. The majority of suitable habitats are concentrated in the northern part of the park, along the western border, and in the Harrena forest area. This study provides vital insights into habitat suitability that are crucial for the conservation of the Mountain Nyala and the overall management of the park.

Habitat suitability models have become a valuable tool for wildlife conservation and management, and are frequently used to better understand the range and habitat requirements of rare and endangered species. In this study, we employed two habitat suitability modeling techniques, namely Boosted Regression Tree (BRT) and Maximum Entropy (Maxent) models, to identify potential suitable habitats for the endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) and environmental factors affecting its distribution in the Arsi and Ahmar Mountains of Ethiopia. Presence points, used to develop our habitat suitability models, were recorded from fecal pellet counts (n = 130) encountered along 196 randomly established transects in 2015 and 2016. Predictor variables used in our models included major landcover types, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), greenness and wetness tasseled cap vegetation indices, elevation, and slope. Area Under the Curve model evaluations for BRT and Maxent were 0.96 and 0.95, respectively, demonstrating high performance. Both models were then ensembled into a single binary output highlighting an area of agreement. Our results suggest that 1864 km2 (9.1%) of the 20,567 km2 study area is suitable habitat for the mountain nyala with land cover types, elevation, NDVI, and slope of the terrain being the most important variables for both models. Our results highlight the extent to which habitat loss and fragmentation have disconnected mountain nyala subpopulations. Our models demonstrate the importance of further protecting suitable habitats for mountain nyala to ensure the species' conservation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As an adaptive biological trait, group size may offer a useful metric for monitoring the welfare of wildlife species affected by their environmental surroundings. Here, we examine the drivers that cause variation in group size of the endangered mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), including a range of natural ecological factors as well as the density of livestock. For this purpose, we collected data along transect lines during both wet and dry seasons focusing on the hitherto poorly studied populations in the Arsi Mountains National Park, Munessa-Kuke Controlled Hunting Area and Muktar Mountain Forest Reserve, which are managed for multiple use of a variety of natural resources. We found group sizes to be an average of 6.3, 4.4 and 4.1 individuals in the Arsi Mountains, Munessa-Kuke and Muktar Mountain study areas, respectively, and a combination of livestock density and habitat visibility explained as much as 74% of the variation in group size. We propose that whereas group size increases with forage availability (as measured by Normalized Difference Vegetation Index -NDVI) and in open habitats (probably due to a switch in antipredator strategy), the presence of livestock also has an independent, negative impact on group size because of the associated disturbance. The findings contribute to understanding the environmental drivers of variation in group size in social antelopes, particularly highlighting the need to improve livestock management to help conservation of species at risk.

Behavioral responses in wildlife due to human activities may often go unnoticed but have significant effects on population viability. This is a particular concern with endangered species characterized by small population sizes. From June 2016 to May 2017, we measured the effects of human activities on daily the activity budget and home range size of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni), an endemic antelope of the Ethiopian highlands. We tracked two groups of mountain nyala from two study sites that differ in the level of human activities; Adaba-Dodola Community Conservation Area (Adaba-Dodola CCA) and Arsi Mountains National Park (Arsi Mountains NP). Our results showed that the time spent on vigilance and movement was dramatically higher in Adaba-Dodola Community CCA, where human presence is significant, than in Arsi Mountains NP, whereas the opposite was true for time spent foraging and resting. In addition, mean home range size (95% KDE) was significantly larger for the Adaba-Dodola CCA group (13 ± 7.4 km2) than for the Arsi Mountains NP group (6.3 ± 2.7 km2) covering larger areas during the dry season (18.7 ± 6.9 km2) than the wet season (4.9 ± 1.0 km2). The finding that increased investment in vigilance and movement trade-off against the restorative behaviors of foraging and resting in human-disturbed areas have implications for conservation managements; specifically, it underscores the need to (i) establish the fitness consequences of behavioral changes, and (ii) monitoring behavioral change in the disturbed population with the aim of bringing it closer to the undisturbed baseline. The study highlights the importance of protected areas, limiting human activities and monitoring the behavioral change of endangered species in human-disturbed areas.

This study aims to understand GIS based ecotourism potential of Munessa Shashemene Concession Forest and its surrounding area in Ethiopia. Landsat images from 2009/2010 and 2013 were used to drive baseline data including land cover, land use, stream and road. Elevation based agro-ecology and slope map were derived from SRTM DEM. Rapid wild animals survey, identifying the location of known historical, cultural and unique features were carried out in the filed with the help of key-informants. A suitability model was designed in GIS environment to assess the suitability of an area for tourism considering suitability factors such as land cover types, wild animal zone, unique features, topography and distance to a road. The result showed areas which are highly suitable, moderately suitable, marginally suitable, or unsuitable for tourism. The old giant, Podocarpus ( Podocarpus falcatus) trees that serve as habitat of the endangered and endemic mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni ), were identified as very high suitable areas for tourists. The highly suitable areas include forest area along the lake which is seasonally visited by mountain nyala and areas of plantation forest that are found adjacent to natural forest. These areas follow remnants of the natural forest and found along boundary between the mid-highland and the highland agro-ecologies. The agricultural land use types consisting of maize/haricot-bean and wheat/barley were evaluated as marginally suitable, nevertheless these could be considered as potential for agri-tourism. The study revealed that the concession area is found to be a suitable area with its huge potential for ecotourism development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We studied the habitat use of mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni in the northern edge of the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. The aims of this study were to: (1) measure and quantify habitat-specific stem bite diameters of mountain nyala foraging on common natural plant species in two major habitat types (i.e. grasslands versus woodlands), and (2) quantify the bite rates (number of bites per minute) and the activity time budgets of mountain nyala as functions of habitat type and sex-age category. We randomly laid out three transects in each habitat type. Following each transect, through focal animal observations, we assessed and quantified stem diameters at point of browse (dpb), bite rates, and time budgets of mountain nyala in grasslands versus woodlands. Stem dpb provide a measure of natural giving-up densities (GUDs) and can be used to assess foraging costs and efficiencies, with greater stem dpb corresponding to lower costs and greater efficiencies. The results showed that stem dpb, bite rates, induced vigilance, and proportion of time spent in feeding differed between habitats. In particular, mountain nyala had greater stem dpb, higher bite rates, and spent a greater proportion of their time in feeding and less in induced vigilance in the grasslands. In addition, adult females had the highest bite rates, and the browse species Solanum marginatum had the greatest stem dpb. Generally, grasslands provide the mountain nyala with several advantages over the woodlands, including offering lower foraging costs, greater safety, and more time for foraging. The study advocates how behavioural indicators and natural GUDs are used to examine the habitat use of the endangered mountain nyala through applying non-invasive techniques. We conclude that the resulting measures are helpful for guiding conservation and management efforts and could be applicable to a number of endangered wildlife species including the mountain nyala [Current Zoology 59 (6) : 707–717, 2013].

Populations of the endangered mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni are significantly threatened by the loss of critical habitat. Population estimates are tentative, and information on the species’ distribution and available habitat is required for formulating immediate management and conservation strategies. To support management decisions and conservation priorities, we integrated information from a number of small-scale observational studies, interviews and reports from multiple sources to define habitat parameters and create a habitat quality model for mountain nyala in the Bale Mountains. For our analysis, we used the FunConn model, an expertise-based model that considers spatial relationships (i.e., patch size, distance) between the species and vegetation type, topography and disturbance to create a habitat quality surface. The habitat quality model showed that approximately 18,610 km2 (82.7% of our study area) is unsuitable or poor habitat for the mountain nyala, while 2,857 km2 (12.7%) and 1,026 km2 (4.6%) was ranked as good or optimal habitat, respectively. Our results not only reflected human induced habitat degradation, but also revealed an extensive area of intact habitat on the remote slopes of the Bale Mountain’s southern and southeastern escarpments. This study provides an example of the roles that expert knowledge can still play in modern geospatial modeling of wildlife habitat. New geospatial tools, such as the FunConn model, are readily available to wildlife managers and allow them to perform spatial analyses with minimal software, data and training requirements. This approach may be especially useful for species that are obscure to science or when field surveys are not practical [Current Zoology 58 (4): 525–535, 2012].

We studied the population dynamics of endangered mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni between 2003–2005 in the Bale Mountains National Park. Line-transect sampling and total count methods were used to gather data on demographics and movement patterns. The population’s age-group composition was 58% adults, 25% sub-adults, 9% juveniles, 5% calves and 3% unidentified with a female-male sex ratio of 2:1. Population density was found to be significantly different between the two sub-populations (Dinsho Sanctuary and Gaysay/Adelay). A significant difference was found for age-group composition across the two sub-populations except adult females, sub-adult males and calves. The Dinsho sub-population was an isolated group. Separation and containment of the mountain nyala population could have negatively affected their ability to search for habitat requirements and mates from distant areas. The population varied between 830–908 individuals (95% CI), a reduction of 45% from earlier reports. However, the mean population density increased due to contraction of the species’ habitat range. We observed a population decrease of 2%–5% per year over the course of our study. Many of the assessed demographic parameters did not significantly change over the three years. This suggests that the decrease in nyala population was not due to random variations in reproduction. Anthropogenic factors such as competition with livestock for forage, habitat encroachment and poaching by the local people might have been partly responsible for the depleted population in our study areas [Current Zoology 56 (6): 660–669, 2010].

Due to their direct dependence on wildlife products for subsistent use, people living in poverty are often viewed as being in conflict with wildlife conservation. We studied the attitudes of local people towards mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni) in Munessa, Ethiopia. A household survey (n = 214) was used to examine the socio-economic characteristics and beliefs of local people from three peasant associations and one village. Generally, the study revealed that local people had positive attitudes towards mountain nyala, its conservation and population increase, which is consistent with our predictions. For example, a greater percentage of the respondents had positive (62.5%) rather than negative (37.5%) attitudes towards mountain nyala and its conservation. Moreover, the larger proportion of the respondents had positive (66.67%) rather than negative (33.3%) attitudes towards an increase in mountain nyala population. However, compared to socio-economic characteristics, beliefs towards mountain nyala were more powerful and consistent predictor of attitudes and explained much of the variances of the two groups of the dependent variables. Thus, informing local communities about the value of mountain nyala (e.g. recreational and economic) through conservation education, advocating the need for sustainable utilization and introducing an economic benefit sharing may improve positive attitude and increase participation of local people in conservation and management of the mountain nyala population in Munessa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the face of fundamental land-use changes, the potential for trophy hunting to contribute to conservation is increasingly recognized. Trophy hunting can, for example, provide economic incentives to protect wildlife populations and their habitat, but empirical studies on these relationships are few and tend to focus on the effects of benefit-sharing schemes from an ex post perspective. We investigated the conditions under which trophy hunting could facilitate wildlife conservation in Ethiopia ex ante. We used a choice experiment approach to survey international trophy hunters' (n = 224) preferences for trips to Ethiopia, here operationalized as trade-offs between different attributes of a hunting package, as expressed through choices with an associated willingness to pay. Participants expressed strong preferences and, consequently, were willing to pay substantial premiums for hunting trips to areas with abundant nontarget wildlife where domestic livestock was absent and for arrangements that offered benefit sharing with local communities. For example, within the range of percentages considered in the survey, respondents were on average willing to pay an additional $3900 for every 10 percentage points of the revenue being given to local communities. By contrast, respondents were less supportive of hunting revenue being retained by governmental bodies: Willingness to pay decreased by $ 1900 for every 10 percentage points of the revenue given to government. Hunters' preferences for such attributes of hunting trips differed depending on the degree to which they declared an interest in Ethiopian culture, nature conservation, or believed Ethiopia to be politically unstable. Overall, respondents thus expressly valued the outcomes of nature conservation activities-the presence of wildlife in hunting areas-and they were willing to pay for them. Our findings highlight the usefulness of insights from choice modeling for the design of wildlife management and conservation policies and suggest that trophy hunting in Ethiopia could generate substantially more financial support for conservation and be more in line with conservation objectives than is currently the case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activity patterns of animals are generally influenced by many factors. We hypothesized that the behavioural responses (i.e. activity time-budget allocated to vigilance, feeding and moving) of mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni) should vary with habitat type, season, group-size and sex-age class. We randomly established a total of 12 permanent walking transects with the aid of a GPS device across three major habitat types used by the mountain nyala (i.e. four transects in each habitat). Following each transect, we conducted focal-animal observations to quantify the time-budget allocated to vigilance, feeding and moving. A total of 119 and 116 focal-animals were assessed in the wet and dry season respectively. Moreover, along each transect, seven habitat variables were collected in systematically laid 109 circular plots each with a 5-m radius (i.e. 31, 41 and 37 plots in the cleared vegetation, plantation and natural forest respectively) in the wet and dry season. We developed behavioural models by correlating the time-budget (i.e. proportion of time vigilance, feeding and moving) of the focal-animals in accordance with habitat variables, group-size and sex-age class. In the wet season, mountain nyala devoted most of their time to vigilance, but they allocated the largest proportion of their time to moving in the dry season. Vigilance differed among the three habitats and was highest in the cleared vegetation during the dry season. Contrary to expectations, adult males were more vigilant than both adult females and sub-adults during the dry season. The behavioural models based on time-budget help to predict how the mountain nyala perceive their environment and trade-off between food acquisition and safety in the wet and dry season. The study also improves our understanding of the adaptive behavioural ecology of the endangered mountain nyala. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We studied the habitat use of mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni in the northern edge of the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. The aims of this study were to: (1) measure and quantify habitat-specific stem bite diameters of mountain nyala foraging on common natural plant species in two major habitat types (i.e. grasslands versus woodlands), and (2) quantify the bite rates (number of bites per minute) and the activity time budgets of mountain nyala as functions of habitat type and sex-age category. We randomly laid out three transects in each habitat type. Following each transect, through focal animal observations, we assessed and quantified stem diameters at point of browse (dpb), bite rates, and time budgets of mountain nyala in grasslands versus woodlands. Stem dpb provide a measure of natural giving-up densities (GUDs) and can be used to assess foraging costs and efficiencies, with greater stem dpb corresponding to lower costs and greater efficiencies. The results showed that stem dpb, bite rates, induced vigilance, and proportion of time spent in feeding differed between habitats. In particular, mountain nyala had greater stem dpb, higher bite rates, and spent a greater proportion of their time in feeding and less in induced vigilance in the grasslands. In addition, adult females had the highest bite rates, and the browse species Solanum marginatum had the greatest stem dpb. Generally, grasslands provide the mountain nyala with several advantages over the woodlands, including offering lower foraging costs, greater safety, and more time for foraging. The study advocates how behavioural indicators and natural GUDs are used to examine the habitat use of the endangered mountain nyala through applying non-invasive techniques. We conclude that the resulting measures are helpful for guiding conservation and management efforts and could be applicable to a number of endangered wildlife species including the mountain nyala. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Habitat fragmentation is an increasing threat to wildlife species across the globe and it has been predicted that future biodiversity will decrease rapidly without the intervention of scientifically-based management. In this study we have applied a landscape genetics approach to suggest a network design that will maintain connectivity among populations of the endangered mountain Nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni) in the fragmented highlands of Ethiopia. DNA was obtained non-invasively from 328 individuals and genetic population structure and gene flow were estimated using 12 microsatellite markers. In addition, a 475-bp segment of the mitochondrial control region was sequenced for 132 individuals. Potential dispersal corridors were determined from least-cost path analysis based on a habitat suitability map. The genetic data indicated limited gene flow between the sampled mountain Nyala populations of the Bale Massif and the Arsi Massif. The genetic differentiation observed among five sampling areas of the Bale Massif followed a pattern of isolation by distance. We detected no impact of habitat resistance on the gene flow. In the future, however, the current expanding human population in the highlands of Ethiopia may reduce the current mountain Nyala habitat and further limit migration. Hence, maintaining habitat connectivity and facilitating survival of stepping-stone populations will be important for the future conservation of the species. The approach used here may also be useful for the study and conservation of other wildlife species inhabiting areas of increasing human encroachment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Populations of the endangered mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni are significantly threatened by the loss of critical habitat. Population estimates are tentative, and information on the species' distribution and available habitat is required for formulating immediate management and conservation strategies. To support management decisions and conservation priorities, we integrated information from a number of small-scale observational studies, interviews and reports from multiple sources to define habitat parameters and create a habitat quality model for mountain nyala in the Bale Mountains. For our analysis, we used the FunConn model, an expertise-based model that considers spatial relationships (i.e., patch size, distance) between the species and vegetation type, topography and disturbance to create a habitat quality surface. The habitat quality model showed that approximately 18,610 km2 (82.7% of our study area) is unsuitable or poor habitat for the mountain nyala, while 2,857 km2 (12.7%) and 1,026 km2 (4.6%) was ranked as good or optimal habitat, respectively. Our results not only reflected human induced habitat degradation, but also revealed an extensive area of intact habitat on the remote slopes of the Bale Mountain's southern and southeastern escarpments. This study provides an example of the roles that expert knowledge can still play in modern geospatial modeling of wildlife habitat. New geospatial tools, such as the FunConn model, are readily available to wildlife managers and allow them to perform spatial analyses with minimal software, data and training requirements. This approach may be especially useful for species that are obscure to science or when field surveys are not practical [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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We studied the population dynamics of endangered mountain nyala Tragelaphus buxtoni between 2003-2005 in the Bale Mountains National Park. Line-transect sampling and total count methods were used to gather data on demographics and movement patterns. The population's age-group composition was 58% adults, 25% sub-adults, 9% juveniles, 5% calves and 3% unidentified with a female-male sex ratio of 2:1. Population density was found to be significantly different between the two sub-populations (Dinsho Sanctuary and Gaysay/Adelay). A significant difference was found for age-group composition across the two sub-populations except adult females, sub-adult males and calves. The Dinsho sub-population was an isolated group. Separation and containment of the mountain nyala population could have negatively affected their ability to search for habitat requirements and mates from distant areas. The population varied between 830-908 individuals (95% CI), a reduction of 45% from earlier reports. However, the mean population density increased due to contraction of the species' habitat range. We observed a population decrease of 2%-5% per year over the course of our study. Many of the assessed demographic parameters did not significantly change over the three years. This suggests that the decrease in nyala population was not due to random variations in reproduction. Anthropogenic factors such as competition with livestock for forage, habitat encroachment and poaching by the local people might have been partly responsible for the depleted population in our study areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study on the population status and structure of mountain nyala ( Tragelaphus buxtoni) was carried out in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia during the wet and dry seasons of 2000/2001. Total counts were carried out in an area of 13.1 km2. The count ranged between 682 and 732 individuals. Females comprised 62.9% while males 27.4%. The calf ratio was 9.7%. The group structure of the animals varied with season. Large herds were frequently observed during the wet season and smaller groups during the dry season. Group size changed seasonally. In both seasons, 7–12 individuals were the frequent group size formation. The maximum group (62) was observed during the wet season. The population trend of the animal from 1975 to 1990 indicated a recovery and increase. But between 1990 and 1995 the population showed a continuous and steep decline. However, between 1995 and 2000 the population trend showed a better condition when compared with the previous years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]