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Inspired by the popular Arab protests against oppressive regimes that began in 2010, people around the world protested in sympathy with the Arab peoples. The present research draws on two major theories of intergroup relations to develop an initial integrative model of sympathetic collective action. We incorporate social dominance theory’s (SDT) concept of (rejectionist) legitimizing myths with the solidarity and emotional mediation concept of the social identity model of collective action (SIMCA) to understand motivations for sympathetic collective action among bystanders. Using data from 12 nations (N = 1,480), we tested three models: (a) SIMCA (i.e., solidarity, anger, and efficacy), (b) a social dominance theory model of collective action (i.e., social dominance orientation and ideologies concerning Arab competence), and (c) an integrated model of sympathetic collective action combining both theories. Results find the greatest support for an integrated model of collective action. Discussion focuses on theoretical pluralism and suggestions for future research.

Social movement studies and political sciences have studied for long ingoing processes among protest groups and activists. However, little empirical research has been addressed to relating movements to the type of social change they endeavour to achieve. In particular, we suggest that different psychosocial processes may distinguish between different types of movements and protest. In this article we cross lines between classical social psychology studies on the individual-authority relationship and studies on protest and social movements. We focused our attention on the psychological processes (such as inclusion/exclusion processes) triggered off in obeying/disobeying. Our results, based on survey data (source: World Values Survey), underscored that when disobedience is associated with attitudes of inclusiveness, it is positively linked to the enhancement of democracy at both the individual and the institutional levels.

Recently some scholars have highlighted a paradoxical phenomenon existing in democratic systems: people supporting democracy are also those most willing to protest against the authority and to question it. However, if we consider the tasks of contemporary democratic citizenship in a social-psychological perspective, this turns out to be only apparent. Indeed, if obedience to authority is relevant as it ensures the continuity of social and group life, disobedience may be crucial in stopping the authority relationship from degenerating into an authoritarian one. Following Kelman and Hamilton’s analysis of legitimacy dynamics, we will try to consider how actions of disobedience may serve the defense of democracy. In particular, by considering the different ways in which people relate to the political system, the relevance of so-called value-oriented citizens in supporting democracy will be considered. In a series of experimental designs, we sought to verify whether value-oriented citizens are really more ready to disobey to authority’s illegitimate demands, irrespective of the authority’s legitimacy. In particular, our studies analyzed the effect of the perception of the authority's level of democracy on the response to an illegitimate demand. Three studies have been conducted; in each, people were asked if they would accept restrictions of certain human rights or not in order to preserve the authority’s proper functioning. Perception of democracy of the authority was manipulated in one study by varying the person who ordered restriction of certain human rights (Kennedy vs. Ceausescu) and in the others by varying the government that ordered the restriction (France vs. Iran) The results of all three studies confirm that value-oriented citizens are more likely to have critical attitudes towards authority, independently of the perceived level of democracy of authority.

Almost everyday, media talk about the arise of some new movement of protest and about signatures collections to support new politics or social groups. These protests become relevant or just disappear due to the more or less support that they receive from the population. But why do people support a protest in some cases and not in others? What elements do people consider in deciding whether to join an online petition for a cause? By integrating the tripolar model proposed by Mugny (1982) with Kelman and Hamilton’s (1989) theory on legitimacy, in this study we consider the issue of legitimacy concerning disobedient groups. Indeed, two legitimacy can be identified: (1) the legitimacy of the group – i.e., disobedient groups may be perceived as victims or threats and this exerts a different influence on population’s support (see Moscovici & Perez, 2007); (2 ) the legitimacy of disobedient groups’ requests – i.e., their requests may support a social change enacted for the sake of every social group or achieve specific and restricted rights. The question is whether supporting or ignoring disobedient groups’ request depends on the legitimacy of the request claimed or on the perceived legitimacy of that group. Results show that in general participants support more the protest of the victimized than the threatening group, while no difference emerges from what concern the request’s legitimacy. However, value-oriented citizens (i.e., people attaching importance to the universal values of justice and equality) tend to accept more the inclusive than the exclusive group’s request.

According to some criminological literature (Weber, 2005), illegitimate detention and human rights violation as consequence of anti-terrorism measures are to be considered crimes of obedience. Indeed, in a previous research Passini and Morselli (2010) explored how people react in front of the decision of sending innocents to anti-terrorist detention camps. Results showed that people respond differently when an illegitimate request (i.e. illegitimate detention) is put forward by a democratic or an authoritarian authority. When people perceive authorities as democratic they tend to obey, notwithstanding the legitimacy of requests. Following these results, the present research aimed to verify, in more details, whether the perception of democracy may lead to blind obedience and acceptance of human rights violations. Three experimental studies – with both attitudinal and behavioural dependent variables – are illustrated. In each of them, the perception of democracy of the governmental institution which violates the rights was manipulated. Results confirm that when people consider the authority as democratic, they are more likely to accept undemocratic procedures. On the other hand, all the three studies point out that people oriented towards moral inclusion (Opotow, 1990) are more likely to have critical attitudes towards authority, independently from the perceived level of democracy of authority. Besides, they are the more likely to disobey and to engage concrete actions.

As many scholars have pointed out (Bandura, 1990; Deutsch, 1985; Opotow, 1990; Staub, 1989) our moral values, beliefs and norms apply to people we include within our scope of justice and our moral community. This community may include different levels of people such as family members, friends, neighbours, compatriots, and so on, until it is referred to every person in the world. Thus, if moral exclusion is defined as excluding other individuals or groups from one’s own moral community (Opotow, 1990), moral inclusion – in its more extensive range – refers to the inclusion and extension of social justice to all social groups. That is, the extension of the same rules and norms applied to one’s own ingroup to all the other groups. The aim of the present work is the construction and validation of an instrument that analyze attitudes of moral exclusion and inclusion referred to some target groups. In particular, on the basis of the moral exclusion scale by Passini (2005) and the social distance scale by Bogardus (1933), a moral exclusion/inclusion scale was constructed as composed by 3 seven-point differential semantic items referred to four groups – two groups supposedly close to subjects’ social groups and two far. Results indicate good psychometric properties of the scale.

According to a number of scholars (Kelman & Hamilton, 1989; Hamilton & Sanders, 1999; Haslam & Reicher, 2007), in the past and in the present century there have been many instances of crimes of obedience that are illegal or immoral acts committed in response to orders or directives from authority. Indeed, while there is broad consensus in condemning acts of destructive obedience as negative and immoral, also nowadays people sometimes approve laws that restrict individual freedoms and rights and that may lead to a curbing of civil liberties. For instance, the P.A.T.R.I.O.T. Act passed on October 26, 2001 in response to the 9/11 attacks was accepted by U.S. citizens without causing too much of an outcry, even though some members of the US Congress did criticize it for weakening civil liberties safeguards. In a previous research we explored how people react in front of the decision of sending innocents to anti-terrorist detention camps. Results showed that people respond differently when an illegitimate request (i.e. illegitimate detention) is put forward by a democratic or an authoritarian authority. When people perceive authorities as democratic they tend to obey, notwithstanding the legitimacy of requests. Following these results, the present research aimed to verify, in more details, whether the perception of democracy may lead to blind obedience and acceptance of human rights violations. Two experimental studies – with both attitudinal and behavioural dependent variables – are illustrated. In each of them, the perception of democracy of the governmental institution which violates the rights was manipulated. Results confirm that when people consider the authority as democratic, they are more likely to accept undemocratic procedures. On the other hand, people oriented towards moral inclusion are more likely to have critical attitudes towards authority, independently from the perceived level of democracy of authority. Besides, they are the more likely to disobey and to engage concrete actions.

Recent episodes of public dissent have staked their claim to a profound focus on the meaning of disobedience within democratic systems, raising relevant questions concerning the psychological processes set off in obeying and disobeying the authority, and on the role that disobedience has in the relationship between individuals and society. Are acts of disobedience a form of non-institutionalized political action or some form of social deviance? What is the difference between pro-democratic disobedience and the disobedience that does not lead to democracy? Dahl’s political theory suggests that democratic ideals and values are fundamental for procedural and institutional democracy. The aim of this research was to consider the relationship between the ideological dimension of democracy and the meanings attributed to obedience and disobedience. We stress the differences between the dimensions of obedience and disobedience, distinguishing at least between responsible obedience and blind obedience and between pro-social disobedience and anti-social disobedience. Three studies were conducted on the World Values Survey data: Study 1 verifies the hypothesis of complementarity according to which obedience and disobedience represent complementary aspects of the support for democratic values; Study 2 verifies the hypothesis of prosociality of disobedience underlining under which psychological condition disobedience can be considered as prosocial and prodemocratic; Study 3 investigates the hypothesis of causality, according to which individual attitudes towards disobedience are predictive of the level of democracy at institutional level.

The relationship between the individual and the authority has a pivotal importance within the social sciences and political psychology. Although obedience to authority has been thoroughly studied in its positive and negative aspects, many cross-cultural studies still tend to consider obedience as a one-dimensional phenomenon. Some theoretical frameworks have instead underlined that obedience is a multidimensional issue and disobedience is far to be merely the opposite side of obedience. The aim of this research was to empirically verify the multidimensionality of obedience and disobedience and their role in supporting the ideological dimension of democracy. This research has been developed from cross-cultural data (source: World Values Survey). Results underline that obedience has, at least, two dimensions which correlate in a different way with the support for democracy. Differences between these dimensions are mirrored also in the correlations with pro-social disobedience, which may be considered a complementary aspect of the pro-democratic obedience.

The relationship between the individual and the authority has a pivotal importance within the social sciences and political psychology. Although obedience to authority has been thoroughly studied in social psychology in its positive and negative aspects, many cross-cultural studies still tend to consider obedience as a one-dimensional phenomenon. Some theoretical frameworks have indeed underlined that obedience is a multidimensional issue and disobedience is far to be merely the opposite side of obedience. Obedience and disobedience are more like two independent and correlated notions, which both concur in the definition of the authority relationship. The aim of this research was to empirically verify the multidimensionality of obedience and disobedience and the dynamic between those two concepts. Study 1 has been developed from cross-cultural data (source: World Values Survey). Results underline that obedience has, at least, two dimensions which correlate in a different way with the support for democracy. Differences between these dimensions are mirrored also in the correlations with disobedience, which can be considered a complementary aspect of the pro-democratic obedience. Study 2 probes in more details the differences between the many facets of obedience and disobedience, by analyzing the representational sphere of these two concepts. Results showed that people developing their relationship with authority on both obedience and disobedience are more likely to give importance to humanitarian values and consider themselves responsible for the defence of human rights.

Depression and suicidal ideation are tightly linked to the lack of hope in the future. Hopelessness begins with the occurrence of negative life events and develops through the perception that negative outcomes are stable and pervasive. Most of the research has investigated individual factors predicting hopelessness. However, other studies have shown that the social context may also play an important role: disadvantaged contexts exacerbate the feeling that future is unreachable and hopeless. In this study we investigate the role of shared emotions (emotional climates) on the sense of hopelessness during the second half of the life. Emotional climates have been defined as the emotional relationships constructed between members of a society and describe the quality of the environment within a particular community. We present results of multilevel analyses using data from the NCCR-LIVES769 project «Vulnerability and growth», the Swiss Household Panel and official statistics, that explore the relationship between characteristics of the Swiss cantons and hopelessness. Although hopelessness is mainly affected by individual factors as life events and personality, results show that canton socio-economic conditions and climates of optimism or pessimism have an effect on the individual perception of hopelessness. Individuals are more likely to feel hopeless after having experienced critical events (i.e., loss of the partner in the late life) in cantons with high rates of unemployment and with a high share of negative emotions. On the contrary, positive emotional climates play a protective role against hopelessness.

Epoxy resin/TiO2 nanocomposites prepared by both reactive suspension method, based on in situ synthesis, and conventional mechanical mixing are analysed by solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance and transmission electron microscopy in order to have a deeper insight into the nature of interactions at the polymer/particle interface and their effect on the nanoparticles dispersion. Specifically, solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance experiments showed that the nanoparticles, synthesized by reactive suspension method, can efficiently link the matrix by hydrogen bonds forming a hybrid organic-inorganic 3D network. Such evidences strongly supports our previously reported theory, in which the nanoparticles in situ synthesized by reactive suspension method act not only as rigid filler, but also as actual cross-linking points, dramatically improving the mechanical properties of the polymeric matrix. Moreover, as revealed by transmission electron microscopy investigations, the formation of such hydrogen bonds significantly affect also the nanoparticles distribution, thanks to a stabilizing effect on the nanoparticles’ surface that prevents their aggregation and improves their dispersion.

The gas separation performance of biopolymers is still scarcely characterized, mostly because of their poor thermomechanical properties and high crystallinity which is associated to low permeability. In this work we characterize the gas transport in a poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) random copolymer, that has a relatively low crystallinity and good mechanical properties, combined with a renewable origin, biodegradability and biocompatibility. In the study we also compared several solvents for membrane casting, with different toxicity levels. We found that dimethyl carbonate allows the production of polymer films with transport properties similar to those obtained with the more toxic CHCl3, and it leads also to stable crystallinity of the samples over time. PHBV films show a size-sieving gas separation behaviour, as the permeability decreases significantly with the gas kinetic diameter. However, the strong energetic interactions of CO2 with the polymer matrix, confirmed by the Flory-Huggins model, induce a marked solubility-driven CO2/N2 and CO2/CH4 selectivity, which could make the material potentially interesting for CO2 removal processes.

Plasticizers are the most used polymer additives world-wide. Nowadays, conventional plasticizers (e.g. phthalates) do not meet the requirements in terms of renewability, biodegradability and cytotoxicity that have become necessary, especially if they are compounded with biopolymers. In this study, novel bioplasticizers are synthesized from levulinic acid via a protecting-group-free three-step process. After FT-IR and NMR characterization of the synthesized molecules, their plasticization effect has been tested with poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) as a model semicrystalline biopolyester characterized by a narrow processing window, slow re-crystallization and high brittleness, which limit its processability and diffusion. The proposed bioplasticizers show remarkable miscibility with PHB and low leaching. The bioplasticizers also show a remarkable plasticization effect in terms of reducing the glass transition and melting temperatures (17 °C and 8 °C, respectively), which are comparable with the performance of the best commercially available green plasticizers. Furthermore, flexibility and crystallinity are positively affected, leading to an overall reduction in the typical brittleness of PHB. The observed effects result in an expansion of the temperature range in which PHB can be processed without thermal degradation. Moreover, the incorporation of the levulinic acid-based additives does not significantly affect the typical biodegradability and biocompatibility of PHB, showing their promising features as bioplasticizers for both environmental and biomedical applications.

In vitro models of biological barriers provide a reliable tool for investigating the physiopathological processes involved in the development of numerous diseases. Producing sustainable in vitro models obtained from solvents and biopolymers derived from industrial by-products add an important value to this underestimated source of valuable (bio)materials. This works aims at demonstrating the suitability of processing together solvents derived from levulinic acid (LA) (extracted from biomasses) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate (PHBV) (whose production is facilitated by LA) to produce electrospun membranes as proof-of-concept of a sustainable, engineered biological barrier fully derived from LA as the starting feedstock. The electrospinning process is initially optimized by identifying the most suitable conditions for obtaining self-supporting microporous membranes. In particular, LA-derived solvents (γ-valerolactone, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl and ethyl levulinate), PHBV concentration, and electrospinning process parameters were investigated. Self-standing and hydrophobic PHBV mats with a micropore size in the range of 1–7 μm and an average elastic modulus of 75 MPa are successfully obtained by using methyl ethyl ketone/formic acid as solvent. Preliminary cell experiments demonstrate that the developed fibrous PHBV mats promote the formation of a confluent monolayer of epithelial cells after 48 h and therefore they can potentially be used to mimic biological epithelial barriers.

By integrating the insights from social identity research on collective action, this article examines the social-psychological mechanisms behind the emergence of the 2019-20 'Chile desperto' social movement, a major Latin American revolt against the government's price hikes. Using survey data collected among Chilean activists (N = 549) and non-activists (i.e., members of broader society, N = 234), we analyse two major explanatory collective action frameworks: that is, the social identity model of collective action (SIMCA) and the encapsulation model of the social identity of collective action (EMSICA). Multi-group SEM with latent variables revealed that the EMSICA was slightly better suited as compared to SIMCA to explain collective action on behalf of newly formed collective identities. As concerns prosocial disobedience, these attitudes predicted collective action intentions indirectly through social identification among both activists and non-activists. The indirect effects of moral outrage were found to be more pronounced in non-activists, whereas perceived collective efficacy had stronger direct mobilizing effects among activists. The discussion highlights the importance of studying individuals' prosocial disobedience attitudes within social identity models of collective action. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement.

Erik Erikson’s theory of human development defines generativity as the concern for the continuation of life after an individual’s death. According to the theory, such a concern has a wide spectrum that ranges from the desire to procreate to the willingness to contribute for the sake of generations that have yet to come, and is thus closely related to concepts of social responsibility and agency. Although this is a well-known aspect of the theory it is only marginally measured in the common quantitative measures of generativity—e.g. the Loyola Generativity Scale. In this study we present the Social Generativity Scale (SGS), which is focused on responsibility for future generation. Correlational analysis showed that the SGS is more consistently linked to future orientation than other generativity measures (i.e. measured with consideration of future consequences), inclusiveness, and political engagement, and negatively related to social dominance orientation and prejudice. The results suggest that the SGS better captures the social responsibility dimension of the generativity concept than previous measures, and for this reason it is complementary to those scales that comprehend generativity as the concern for personal continuation after death and desire of parenting.

Sustainable coatings for metal food packaging were prepared from ZnO nanoparticles (obtained by the thermal decomposition of zinc acetate) and a naturally occurring polyhydroxylated fatty acid named aleuritic (or 9,10,16-trihydroxyhexadecanoic) acid. Both components reacted, originating under specific conditions zinc polyaleuritate ionomers. The polymerization of aleuritic acid into polyaleuritate by a solvent-free, melt polycondensation reaction was investigated at different times (15, 30, 45, and 60 min), temperatures (140, 160, 180, and 200 °C), and proportions of zinc oxide and aleuritic acid (0:100, 5:95, 10:90, and 50:50, w/w). Kinetic rate constants calculated by infrared spectroscopy decreased with the amount of Zn due to the consumption of reactive carboxyl groups, while the activation energy of the polymerization decreased as a consequence of the catalyst effect of the metal. The adhesion and hardness of coatings were determined from scratch tests, obtaining values similar to robust polymers with high adherence. Water contact angles were typical of hydrophobic materials with values ≥94°. Both mechanical properties and wettability were better than those of bisphenol A (BPA)-based resins and most likely are related to the low migration values determined using a hydrophilic food simulant. The presence of zinc provided a certain degree of antibacterial properties. The performance of the coatings against corrosion was studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy at different immersion times in an aqueous solution of NaCl. Considering the features of these biobased lacquers, they can be potential materials for bisphenol A-free metal packaging., Sustainable zinc polyaleuritate ionomer-based coatings are fabricated by green manufacturing and presented as an alternative technology for BPA-free metal packaging.

A new, facile and low-sample consuming technique for the determination of hydroxyl values (OHVs) in poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s (PHAs) is herein presented. After a fast, uncatalyzed and non-destructive trifluoroacetylation of all PHA hydroxyl groups, OHVs are calculated through 19F-NMR measurements, comparing integral values of the only two signals in the spectra: the fluorinated hydroxyl groups and the internal standard (trifluorotoluene) signals. Furthermore, the combined ex situ functionalization with a simple workup of the fluorinated polymer allowed to obtain spectra with an improved signal/noise ratio and short acquisition time if compared to 1H-NMR-based methods. The results obtained by 19F-NMR measurements are then validated by the established standard method based on acid/base titration and the 1H-NMR-based method. The proposed approach shows to be valuable not only for low molecular weight PHAs, but also for high molecular weight samples, which typically cannot be analysed by conventional 1H-NMR-based methods due to the very low concentration of hydroxyl terminal groups. Thanks to the observed high reliability, the method was also successfully applied to evaluate the OHVs of various commercial hydroxyl terminated polymers with different molecular weights in order to further show its wide applicability.

Taking inspiration from plant tendril geometry, in this study, 4D bimorph coiled structures with an internal core of graphene nanoplatelets-modified regenerated silk and an external shell of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) are fabricated by 4D printing. Finite element simulations and experimental tests demonstrate that integrating these biomaterials with different coefficients of thermal expansion results in the temperature induced self-compression and torsion of the structure. The bimorph spring also exhibits reversible contractive actuation after exposure to water environment that paves its exploitation in regenerative medicine, since core materials also have been proven to be biocompatible. Finally, the authors validate their findings with experimental measurements using such springs for temperature-mediated lengthening of an artificial intestine.

We present a two-step process to obtain PMMA fibrous membranes with homogeneously in situ synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles of defined shape and size, both on the fibers' surface and bulk. The method is based on the electrospinning of PMMA/precursor solutions and the subsequent thermally activated in situ conversion of zinc acetate to zinc oxide nanoparticles directly in the solid polymeric fibers. X-ray diffraction measurements ensure the formation of crystalline ZnO nanoparticles. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy prove that homogeneously distributed nanoparticles with two different morphologies and size distributions are obtained, depending on the area of the fibers where the nanoparticles are nucleated and on the initial precursor's content. In particular, branched nanoparticles homogeneously decorate the fibers' surface with their dimensions that range from 50 nm to 140 nm for initial precursor contents from 23 to 40 wt%, respectively. On the other hand, small spherical nanoparticles of ca. 7 nm are mainly observed in the bulk of the fibers. Unlike the branched nanoparticles, the dimensions of the spherical nanoparticles are practically unaffected by the precursor amount initially loaded. The homogeneously distributed nanoparticles both on the surface and in the bulk of the polymeric fibers, combined with the high surface area provided by the fibrous structure, result in a multifunctional material characterized by reversible UV-induced wettability and water permeability, improved thermal stability and antibacterial activity particularly promising for diverse applications such as filtration, wound management, photocatalysis, antibacterial and UV-shielding textiles.