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Vasodilation in response to low oxygen (O2) tension (hypoxic vasodilation) is an essential homeostatic response of systemic arteries that facilitates O2 supply to tissues according to demand. However, how blood vessels react to O2 deficiency is not well understood. A common belief is that arterial myocytes are O2-sensitive. Supporting this concept, it has been shown that the activity of myocyte L-type Ca2+channels, the main ion channels responsible for vascular contractility, is reversibly inhibited by hypoxia, although the underlying molecular mechanisms have remained elusive. Here, we show that genetic or pharmacological disruption of mitochondrial electron transport selectively abolishes O2 modulation of Ca2+ channels and hypoxic vasodilation. Mitochondria function as O2 sensors and effectors that signal myocyte Ca2+ channels due to constitutive Hif1α-mediated expression of specific electron transport subunit isoforms. These findings reveal the acute O2-sensing mechanisms of vascular cells and may guide new developments in vascular pharmacology. Hypoxia inhibits the activity of calcium channels in arterial myocytes by unknown mechanisms and contributes to arterial vasodilation. Here, the authors show that myocyte mitochondria are essential for sensing acute hypoxia and generate signals (NADH and H2O2) that modulate membrane calcium channels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Breathing faster with HIF2α: In response to hypoxia, glomus cells in the carotid body trigger an increase in ventilation. At the molecular level, hypoxia slows down the electron transport chain in mitochondria, resulting in the accumulation of ROS and NADH, which ultimately activate glomus cells. HIF2α is a hypoxia-induced transcription factor that is highly abundant in glomus cells. Moreno-Domínguez et al. found that HIF2α was necessary for acute responses to hypoxia (see the Focus by Bishop and Ratcliffe). HIF2α mediated the expression of three atypical electron transport chain subunits that were necessary for a rapid buildup of ROS and NADH under hypoxic conditions in glomus cells. Similar to mice deficient in HIF2α in glomus cells, mice that lacked at least one of these atypical electron transport chain subunits in glomus cells also failed to increase ventilation in response to hypoxia. The authors propose that HIF2α target gene expression may set a tissue's acute O2-sensing ability. Acute cardiorespiratory responses to O2 deficiency are essential for physiological homeostasis. The prototypical acute O2-sensing organ is the carotid body, which contains glomus cells expressing K+ channels whose inhibition by hypoxia leads to transmitter release and activation of nerve fibers terminating in the brainstem respiratory center. The mechanism by which changes in O2 tension modulate ion channels has remained elusive. Glomus cells express genes encoding HIF2α (Epas1) and atypical mitochondrial subunits at high levels, and mitochondrial NADH and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation during hypoxia provides the signal that regulates ion channels. We report that inactivation of Epas1 in adult mice resulted in selective abolition of glomus cell responsiveness to acute hypoxia and the hypoxic ventilatory response. Epas1 deficiency led to the decreased expression of atypical mitochondrial subunits in the carotid body, and genetic deletion of Cox4i2 mimicked the defective hypoxic responses of Epas1-null mice. These findings provide a mechanistic explanation for the acute O2 regulation of breathing, reveal an unanticipated role of HIF2α, and link acute and chronic adaptive responses to hypoxia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key points Blood flow to our organs is maintained within a defined range to provide an adequate supply of nutrients and remove waste products by contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle cells of resistance arteries and arterioles., The ability of these cells to contract in response to an increase in intravascular pressure, and to relax following a reduction in pressure (the 'myogenic response'), is critical for appropriate control of blood flow, but our understanding of its mechanistic basis is incomplete., Small arteries of skeletal muscles were used to test the hypothesis that myogenic constriction involves two enzymes, Rho-associated kinase and protein kinase C, which evoke vasoconstriction by activating the contractile protein, myosin, and by reorganizing the cytoskeleton., Knowledge of the mechanisms involved in the myogenic response contributes to understanding of how blood flow is regulated and will help to identify the molecular basis of dysfunctional control of arterial diameter in disease., Abstract The myogenic response of resistance arteries to intravascular pressure elevation is a fundamental physiological mechanism of crucial importance for blood pressure regulation and organ-specific control of blood flow. The importance of Ca2+ entry via voltage-gated Ca2+ channels leading to phosphorylation of the 20 kDa myosin regulatory light chains (LC20) in the myogenic response is well established. Recent studies, however, have suggested a role for Ca2+ sensitization via activation of the RhoA/Rho-associated kinase (ROK) pathway in the myogenic response. The possibility that enhanced actin polymerization is also involved in myogenic vasoconstriction has been suggested. Here, we have used pressurized resistance arteries from rat gracilis and cremaster skeletal muscles to assess the contribution to myogenic constriction of Ca2+ sensitization due to: (1) phosphorylation of the myosin targeting subunit of myosin light chain phosphatase (MYPT1) by ROK; (2) phosphorylation of the 17 kDa protein kinase C (PKC)-potentiated protein phosphatase 1 inhibitor protein (CPI-17) by PKC; and (3) dynamic reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton evoked by ROK and PKC. Arterial diameter, MYPT1, CPI-17 and LC20 phosphorylation, and G-actin content were determined at varied intraluminal pressures ± H1152, GF109203X or latrunculin B to suppress ROK, PKC and actin polymerization, respectively. The myogenic response was associated with an increase in MYPT1 and LC20 phosphorylation that was blocked by H1152. No change in phospho-CPI-17 content was detected although the PKC inhibitor, GF109203X, suppressed myogenic constriction. Basal LC20 phosphorylation at 10 mmHg was high at ∼40%, increased to a maximal level of ∼55% at 80 mmHg, and exhibited no additional change on further pressurization to 120 and 140 mmHg. Myogenic constriction at 80 mmHg was associated with a decline in G-actin content by ∼65% that was blocked by inhibition of ROK or PKC. Taken together, our findings indicate that two mechanisms of Ca2+ sensitization (ROK-mediated phosphorylation of MYPT1-T855 with augmentation of LC20 phosphorylation, and a ROK- and PKC-evoked increase in actin polymerization) contribute to force generation in the myogenic response of skeletal muscle arterioles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key points Essential hypertension involves an electrical remodelling of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), particularly relevant for K+ channels, as key determinants of resting membrane potential ( VM) and excitability., We explored mRNA expression levels of inward rectifier K+ channel genes in five different vascular beds from normotensive (BPN) and hypertensive (BPH) mice. In mesenteric VSMCs, their functional contribution to cell excitability and vascular reactivity was investigated., BPH mesenteric VSMCs show a decreased functional expression of both classical inward rectifiers (KIR, Kir2 and Kir4 channels) and ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP, Kir6 channels). However, only the changes in the functional expression of KATP channels seem to contribute to the increased vascular reactivity of BPH arteries., BPN and BPH mice are a useful model to provide integrated information of the impact in the pathophysiology of essential hypertension of the changes in ion channel functional expression., Abstract The increased vascular tone that defines essential hypertension is associated with depolarization of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) and involves a change in the expression profile of ion channels promoting arterial contraction. As a major regulator of VSMC resting membrane potential ( VM), K+ channel activity is an important determinant of vascular tone and vessel diameter. However, hypertension-associated changes in the expression and/or modulation of K+ channels are poorly defined, due to their large molecular diversity and their bed-specific pattern of expression. Moreover, the impact of these changes on the integrated vessel function and their contribution to the development of altered vascular tone under physiological conditions need to be confirmed. Hypertensive (BPH) and normotensive (BPN) mice strains obtained by phenotypic selection were used to explore whether changes in the functional expression of VSMC inward rectifier K+ channels contribute to the more depolarized resting VM and the increased vascular reactivity of hypertensive arteries. We determined the expression levels of inward rectifier K+ channel mRNA in several vascular beds from BPN and BPH animals, and their functional contribution to VSMC excitability and vascular tone in mesenteric arteries. We found a decrease in the expression of Kir2.1, Kir4.1, Kir6.x and SUR2 mRNA in BPH VSMCs, and a decreased functional contribution of both KIR and KATP channels in isolated BPH VSMCs. However, only the effect of KATP channel modulators was impaired when exploring vascular tone, suggesting that decreased functional expression of KATP channels may be an important element in the remodelling of VSMCs in essential hypertension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Significance: Acute responses to hypoxia are essential for the survival of mammals. The carotid body (CB), the main arterial chemoreceptor, contains glomus cells with oxygen (O 2 )-sensitive K + channels, which are inhibited during hypoxia to trigger adaptive cardiorespiratory reflexes. Recent Advances: In this review, recent advances in molecular mechanisms of acute O 2 sensing in CB glomus cells are discussed, with a special focus on the signaling role of mitochondria through regulating cellular redox status. These advances have been achieved thanks to the use of genetically engineered redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein (roGFP) probes, which allowed us to monitor rapid changes in ROS production in real time in different subcellular compartments during hypoxia. This methodology was used in combination with conditional knockout mice models, pharmacological approaches, and transcriptomic studies. We have proposed a mitochondria-to-membrane signaling model of acute O 2 sensing in which H 2 O 2 released in the mitochondrial intermembrane space serves as a signaling molecule to inhibit K + channels on the plasma membrane. Critical Issues: Changes in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production during acute hypoxia are highly compartmentalized in the submitochondrial regions. The use of redox-sensitive probes targeted to specific compartments is essential to fully understand the role of mitochondrial ROS in acute O 2 sensing. Future Directions: Further studies are needed to specify the ROS and to characterize the target(s) of ROS in chemoreceptor cells during acute hypoxia. These data may also contribute to a more complete understanding of the implication of ROS in acute responses to hypoxia in O 2 -sensing cells in other organs. Antioxid. Redox Signal . 37, 274-289.