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Additional file 1: Table S1. Comparison of prevalence of L. infantum infection among wildlife and domestic animals from two macro-areas (central and northern) of Italy in the last 10 years.

This elaborate is a three-year route spent on epidemiology, control and surveillance of parasitic diseases both domestic animals and wildlife. It includes eight chapters, where each one, except the prelude and conclusions, concerns different projects regarding to the same topic: Epidemiology and Control of parasitic diseases. It deals with the ancient issue, but still modern, of cystic echinococcosis (CE), one of the costliest diseases to treat and prevent. Its prevalence, in cattle, is still the same 8% compared to the one of fifty years back. This tapeworm is still present and affects exotic animals as ring-tiled lemur (Lemur catta) confined in a zoo. Again, it is stressed the marginal role played by other species, different from sheep and dog, in the Echinococcus granulosus (G1 strain) epidemiology. Additionally, it gives updates on the health status of red fox and wild boar populations and on the plausible interactions between domestic animal and wildlife. Indeed, wild boar population shows a prevalence of the genus Metastrongylus of about 97%, whereas the lungworm Crenosoma vulpis, identified based on size and morphology, is recovered from 28.4% of the fox lungs. Helminth community in Apennine wolf illustrates the attitudes to food in terms of predation and parasitic diseases transmission. The first useful data in a surveillance program is to know and count which aetiological agents are present; the experience, carried out in South African preserves, offers interesting control strategies. Surveillance is aimed at, demostrating the presence/absence of a disease or infection, knowing its epidemiology and spreading in order to detect as early as possible exotic, emerging or re-emerging diseases as well as to cut costs for eradication and avoid exportation restrictions. The present thesis demonstrates the importance of intersectoral cooperation, where each stakeholder puts in the own knowledges in order to stem the spread of transmissible diseases.

In 2011, several outbreaks of West Nile disease occurred in Sardinia (Italy). The region hosts several chelonian species. Because of the increasing concern on the potential role that ectotherms may play in the ecology of West Nile virus (WNV), in October 2011 blood samples were collected from 41 endemic Sardinian chelonians and tested for the presence of active WNV infection or neutralizing antibodies by real time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and serumneutralisation, respectively. Neither WNV neutralising antibodies (0%; 95% CI: 0‑8.4%) nor WNV RNA (0%; 95% CI: 0‑6.8%) were found in the tested samples. According to the results of this screening survey, it is unlikely that chelonians are involved in the epidemiology of the 2011 WNV outbreaks in Sardinia.

Introduction - Gastro-intestinal nematodes are important helminth parasites in all animal species. However, they must regarded particularly dangerous in domestic ruminant species, also in relation to consequent economic losses. Aim - The present study focused on providing current data, missing since several decades, on gastro-intestinal nematode parasitic infection, prevalence and epidemiology in adult cattle (dairy and brood cows) bred in Italy. Materials and methods - The survey was performed collecting 427 fecal samples from a bovine slaughterhouse in the province of Bologna (Italy). Samples, obtained from single animals processed, were analyzed by qualitative coprological examinations. From the same animals 100 abomasa were randomly selected and examined by necropsy technique to assess the presence of worm burdens. Results - Gastro-intestinal nematode eggs were detected in 31% of individual fecal samples examined. Evaluation of abomasa exhibited a prevalence of 13% of helminthes. Ostertagia, Trichostrongylus and Cooperia were the isolated genera. The fecal output of nematode eggs was significantly related with the livestock category and the stocking density. Discussion - The influence of livestock category on the occurrence of positive coprological results can be attributed to the condition of animal husbandry: brood cows are often pasture raised. The correlation observed between positive samples and herd size, with intermediate class (50-99 animals) associated with higher prevalence, may be explained by a different effectiveness of hygiene management among classes of stocking density. Conclusions - The study results show that endoparasitic infection by nematodes is a problem that must be considered ubiquitous in Italy in adult cattle, with relatively high prevalence rate. Nevertheless, it seems to be still underestimated by technicians in the field.

INTRODUCTION: Aelurostrongylus abstrusus (Strongylida, Angiostrongylidae) is regarded as important lungworm specie of domestic felids. Recently also Troglostrongylus spp. (Strongylida, Crenosomatidae), has been described in domestic cats with growing number of cases in Southern Italy (Brianti et al., 2014, Vet. Parasitol, S0304-4017: 00061-2), having an indirect life cycle, which overlaps that of the better known A. abstrusus. Adult worms of both genera have distinct morphology and localization within the lung tissue of the definitive hosts. The presence of these parasites in the airways of the definitive hosts may cause significant respiratory signs. This study describes a mixed infection by these lungworms in a kitten coming from Sardinia (Capo Comino), but resident in the province of Bologna. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The fecal sample of a 3 months old small cat was sent on October 8, 2013 at the Dept. of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Italy, for routine examinations. Copromicroscopical examination carried out with a floating solution (PS 1300) and by Baerman apparatus, showed the presence of larvae (L1). The kitten was clinically evaluated and subjected to X-ray exams. Larvae found in each microscopic field were morphometrically and morphologically examined individually and identified based on their size and appearance of the tail and the head. DNA was extracted from L1 larvae and then processed by PCR amplyfing ITS2 ribosomal RNA as described by Tamponi et al. (2014 in press). RESULTS: The morphology and the size of the larvae was indicative for mixed infection of A. abstrusus and Troglostrongylus spp.. Clinical examination was normal and chest X-ray showed a diffuse alveolar-interstitial pattern with an increased soft tissue opacity in the right caudal lobe. ITS2 sequences showed a 100% homology those of T. brevior and A. abstrusus. The kitten firstly was treated with Prednisone 2.5 mg for 5 days and Imidacloprid 10%/Moxidectin 1% Spot-on (Traversa et al., 2009, Parasitol. Res., 105: s55-s62). Fecal examination repeated on October 30, 2013 tested still positive while, at x ray the pulmonary framework was improved; the kitten was treated again with the spot-on. After a further period spent in Sardinia, on January 28, 2014 fecal examination revealed again the presence of larvae and a third treatment, increasing the dosage on the spot on was performed. The last control on March 6, 2014 tested negative and the clinical pictures allowed us to be considered the cat healed. CONCLUSIONS: Lungworm parasitic infection of the cat are usually reported as due to A. abstrusus, while there are scarce reports of other lung nematodes; this could be due to the lack of accurate evaluation of morphometrical features of L1 during coprological diagnosis. This case in a cat coming from Sardinia confirms the spreading of these parasites, and in particular of T. brevior in this island as recently reported in other surveys (Tamponi et al. 2014 in press). This genera is usually reported as few pathogen, unlike A. abstrusus. In our case, despite the double infestation, the subject showed no obvious clinical signs, even if the framework of lung was altered and improved following therapy.

Livestock breeding is one of the main agricultural activities in Tanzania, recognized as one of the African countries with the greatest livestock resources. Cattle is the most widely bred animal species, especially with traditional farming methods such as pastoralism and agro-pastoralism. Slaughtering takes place mainly in rural slaughter slabs and municipal slaughterhouses, and according to local legislation it must be supervised by Official Veterinarians, who report any organs to be discarded and, after stamping the carcass, authorize its free consumption. Since the Ruvuma region lacks data on cattle diseases, the aim of this study was to collect information at Songea slaughterhouse, with particular attention to conditions of parasitic aetiology and potential zoonotic interest, deepening inspective diagnoses by means of parasitological and histological investigations on tissue samples. Overall, the slaughter data of 614 animals are reported. In most cases slaughtered cattle belonged to local breeds and came from the Mbeya region. Fasciolosis (diagnosed in 44.6% of animals) was the most frequent condition, followed by respiratory diseases (24.4%), aortic onchocerciasis (6.5%), hydatidosis (5.5%) and bovine cysticercosis (3.4%). Laboratory analysis identified Fasciola gigantica as the species involved in hepatic distomatosis in this area. Cases macroscopically ascribed to cysticercosis turned out to be a muscular form of onchocerciasis (by Onchocerca dukei), a neglected and unrecognised parasitic disease in Tanzania, questioning the real frequence of a zoonosis that causes primarily major economic losses. Pulmonary cysts, referred as hydatidosis at visual inspection, were histologically identified as haemal nodes, lymphoid organs common in ruminants, but described in cattle lungs for the first time in the present paper. Slaughterhouse is an important epidemiological observatory, especially for neglected parasitoses. The possibility of having basic laboratory diagnostics as an aid to visual inspection can ensure greater efficiency of veterinary services in the control of important livestock diseases and zoonoses, in the frame of a One Health perspective.

Simple Summary Antimicrobial resistance is a threat that poses a great risk to public health. It has been predicted that, by 2050, there will have been 10 million deaths worldwide due to drug-resistant infections. There is a crucial need in Veterinary Medicine to reduce the use of antimicrobials to slow down the process and incidence of antimicrobial resistance as a One Health concern. The aim of this study was to evaluate the appearance of bacteremia following endoscopic procedures in dogs brought to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) of the Department of Veterinary Medical Science of the University of Bologna. The results obtained from hemocultures before and after the endoscopic procedures demonstrated a low incidence of bacteremia after endoscopy. This could be seen as an attempt to reduce the use of antimicrobials to avoid the spread of antimicrobial resistance. Abstract Endoscopic procedures are widely used in veterinary medicine, and their role in producing transient bacteremia is debatable. The growing issue of antibiotic resistance requires the correct use of antibiotics, avoiding their administration when not strictly necessary. Studies highlighting post-endoscopy bacteremia in veterinary medicine are extremely rare and often involve very few animals. This study describes the results from 74 owned dogs, brought to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the Department of Veterinary Medical Science of the University of Bologna, for the purpose of undergoing an endoscopic procedure. Two blood samples were taken from each dog, one before and one after the procedure, in order to assess the incidence of bacteremia linked to endoscopic procedures. Eight dogs were tested positive at the second blood culture with an Incidence Risk (IR) of 10.8%. No statistical differences were found by comparing positive and negative blood cultures with respect to sex, age, weight and anesthesia duration. In addition, no difference was found between airway and digestive tract procedures. The present findings showed that the probability of developing bacteremia after an endoscopic procedure was quite low, and additional studies confirming this are certainly recommended as well as the evaluation of categories of patients potentially considered at risk.

Several developments have been recently achieved to understand pet-dog parasites and their relationship with hosts; however, parasites' presence and distribution in shepherd-dog have been mainly neglected; this knowledge gap is of critical sanitary importance, as shepherd-dogs could harbor zoonotic helminths including Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato. The related human disease, cystic echinococcosis, is a worldwide neglected disease, with high endemicity in the Mediterranean Basin. To evaluate the presence of E. granulosus and other parasites, a sheep-dog population from the province of Grosseto (Tuscany, Italy) has been investigated. Overall, 648 dog fecal samples obtained from 50 modern sheep farms, having a total of 216 dogs, were collected. Specimens were analyzed using a standardized centrifugal flotation method (specific gravity = 1.3). Taeniid eggs detected were further isolated using a sieving/flotation technique. DNA was isolated from eggs for PCR and sequence analyses for species identification (gene target: 12S rRNA and nad1). Thirty-nine (78%) farms tested positive for at least one parasite species or genus. The most represented intestinal helminths were Toxocara spp. in 64% of farms, followed by Ancylostomatidae (58%), Trichuris vulpis (50%), Capillaria spp. (34%), and taeniids (32%). Sequence analyses confirmed the presence of Taenia hydatigena in seven farms, Taenia (syn. Multiceps) multiceps in five farms, and T. pisiformis in one farm. No DNA was extracted from four previously taeniid egg-positive farms. No amplification of amplicon corresponding to E. granulosus was achieved in the investigated farms. Although not entirely expected, Spearman's test showed a positive correlation between flock size and the number of dogs per farm (ρ = 0.588, P < 0.001). The quantitative analysis reported that the home slaughter practice was affected neither by the flock size nor by the number of dogs per farm. The probability to diagnose farms positive for taeniids had been increased by about 35% for each dog unit increase [odds ratio (OR) = 1.35, P = 0.012]. In conclusion, the wide distribution of T. hydatigena and T. multiceps detected in the present study clearly reveals that dogs have still access to raw offal, a major risk for the transmission of E. granulosus. Home slaughtering is an unavoidable practice, and more efforts must be undertaken by the public health system to prevent and control potential zoonotic taeniids.

After centuries of massive decline, the recovery of the wolf (Canis lupus italicus) in Italy is a typical conservation success story. To learn more about the possible role of parasites in the wolves' individual and population health and conservation we used non-invasive molecular approaches on fecal samples to identify individual wolves, pack membership, and the taeniids present, some of which are zoonotic. A total of 130 specimens belonging to 54 wolves from eight packs were collected and examined. Taeniid eggs were isolated using a sieving/flotation technique, and the species level was identified by PCR (gene target: 12S rRNA and nad1). Taeniid prevalence was 40.7% for Taenia hydatigena, 22.2% for T. krabbei, 1.8% for T. polyachanta and 5.5% for Echinococcus granulosus. The prevalence of E. granulosus is discussed. Our results show that the taeniid fauna found in wolves from the Foreste Casentinesi National Park is comparable to that described for other domestic and wild Italian canids and provides insights into the wolves’ diet and their relationship with the environment.

Crenosoma vulpis, the fox lungworm, is a nematode parasite of wild and domestic canids belonging to the super-family Metastrongyloidea. A survey of infection was carried out examining 88 red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) obtained during the regular hunting season (2014-2015) from the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Carcasses were stored frozen (- 21°C) prior to necropsy. Lungs were examined for the presence of adult worms by dissection of the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, and then the lung tissue was examined for first-stage larvae (L1) by the Baermann method. No adult stages were detected, but L1, identified based on morphology as Crenosoma vulpis, were recovered from 28.4% (25/88) of the fox lungs. No significant differences in infection were found based on sex or geographical distribution. A brief review on C. vulpis report in red foxes in Italy and other European countries was also carried out.

Plasma synthetic jet actuators (PSJAs) demonstrated their ability to produce a tubular flow normal to the surface where the dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) is ignited. These fluid dynamics actuators enhance the delivery of reactive and charged species toward the target to be treated. In this work, the efficacy of an octagonal PSJA used to indirectly treat Candida guilliermondii, both in agar substrate and in saline solution, was experimentally studied. The inactivation effect of free charges advected by the induced flow has been investigated as well by interposing a metallic mesh between the actuator surface and the treated sample. Therefore, the passage of charges and their migration toward the sample can either be allowed or prevented simply by having the mesh floating or connected to the ground, respectively. A 4 log and a 2 log colony-forming unit (CFU) reduction were observed for agar substrate and saline solution, respectively, at the highest energy dose treatment with the grid grounded. Under the same conditions but with the grid at floating potential, the presence of advected charges gives an additional 1 log CFU. In addition to biological tests, chemical analyses have been carried out to identify the most important modifications produced by the induced flow into treated water. Results presented in this work demonstrate the efficacy of PSJAs in indirect treatment of C. guilliermondii, both on agar substrate and saline solution, and the inactivation properties of free charges advected by this type of fluid dynamics actuator.

Introduction: Cystic Echinococcosis (CE) is one of the most widespread zoonosis of veterinary and medical importance still constituting a sanitary, economic and socio-cultural problem in Italy. Methodology: The aim of this study was to update epidemiological data on cattle CE in Italy. Data on CE positivity of 5,336 cattle were acquired from abattoir registers between January 2009 and July 2010. Morphobiological characterization of hydatids was performed by direct examination of liver and lungs of 1,664 animals butchered in the same slaughterhouses in 2010. Strain typing of parasites was carried out through the amplification and sequencing of nd1 and cox1 mitochondrial genes. Results: Overall CE prevalence was of 8.1% (430/5,336). Parasitological examination of hydatids showed an overall prevalence of 8.6% with a fertility rate of 0.7% (12/1,664). Regarding localization, hydatids were found in 8% of the livers and in 7.6% of the lungs, respectively. Among positive animals, higher prevalence was observed in the liver (93%) compared to lungs (88.1%) (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The economic loss due to organs condemnation related to CE in cattle amounted to almost € 24,000 per year in the examined abattoir during 2010. Sequence analysis showed the presence of G1 (sheep strain) or Echinococcus granulosus sensu strictu in all examined samples. The G1 confirmed, once more, its possible development into several intermediate hosts such as cattle, especially in areas like southern Italy and Sardinia where the lifecycle of the parasite is still to date carried on by sheep and dogs.

The respiratory tracts of 57 wild boars (Sus scrofa L. 1758) hunted in central Italy during the 2011/2012 hunting season were examined to detect the presence of lung worms. Fifty-five out of 57 animals (96,5%) were positive. Five species of Metastrongylus were detected and their prevalence was as follows: Metastrongylus asymmetricus Noda, 1973 (91.2%), Metastrongylus confusus Jansen, 1964 and Metastrongylus salmi Gedoelst, 1923 (87.7%), Metastrongylus apri Gmelin, 1790 (80.7%), Metastrongylus pudendotectus Vostokov, 1905 (70.2%). In most cases multi-species infection was observed. The highest parasite load was found in young animals (