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Unlike oliv e orchards intended fo r oliv e oil, th e pr odu ction of tabl e olives in na rro w hedgerow s is very recent an d th e info rmation avai lable abou t this cropping sy ste m is ye t very scarce . In this work , we studie d fo r th e firs t time in tabl e oliv e hedgerow s (3.75m x 1.35m, N - S or iented) of Ma nzanill a de Sevill a an d Ma nzanill a Ca cereñ a cu lti - vars , th e di str i b ution within th e canopy of yiel d co mponent s an d phys ica l -chemical frui t qualit y traits in re - sponse to th e incident irradiance . Hedgerow canopies were divide d into four position s on each side (Eas t an d West ) accordin g to height abov eground : 0. 5 –1.0m , 1. 0 –1.5m , 1. 5 –2.0m , 2. 0 –2.5m , an d an additional to p canopy position (> 2.5m ) integrated fo r both sides. Tota l pr odu ction , nu mbe r of fruits an d size di str i b ution were recorded fo r each position an d th e fo llo win g frui t traits were assessed : fres h weight , length , equato ria l diam eter, pulp -to -pi t ratio, colo r index, brui sin g pe rcentage, oi l co ntent , wate r co ntent , tota l su gar s an d tota l ph enols . Indi - vi dua l ph enoli c co mpounds were also quantified . Th e incident irradiance at each position wa s ca lculate d over th e frui t growth period usin g a mode l base d on hedgerow parameters , resultin g in a po s itive gr adien t from base to to p canopy positions. Fo r both cu ltivars , yiel d co mponent s an d most qualit y traits were po s itively affected by incident irradiance as they fo llowe d a si m ila r tren d showin g larger mean va lue s with increa sin g canopy heights. Co nversely, th e tota l co ntent s in suga r an d ph enols an d indivi dua l ph enoli c co mpounds were no t affected by th e canopy positions. No remarkable di ffe rence s betwee n East an d West side s of th e hedgerow were observed .

Super-high density olive orchards may increase proftability for table olive producers. However, water needs and fruit dam age could limit their viability. Defcit irrigation scheduling would reduce the amount of water required, but rehydration before harvest is extremely important. The aim of this work was to compare a typical defcit farm management model with a regulated defcit irrigation one based on the plant water status. The experiment was carried out during three seasons in a three years-old (4×1.5 m) commercial table olive orchard. In both irrigation scheduling plots, seasonal amount of applied water was similar. Irrigation treatments were: common farm management (CFM), an almost constant rate of irrigation, and Regulated defcit (RDI) based on midday shaded water potential. Vegetative measurements suggested that RDI increased the external surface of the hedge, and this was related with greater yield in this treatment. Signifcant diferences were found in of fruit size at harvest in some seasons, with larger fruits in RDI compared to CFM. However, fruit damage occurred during mechanical harvest in both irrigation managements, despite the higher skin frmness in RDI, and shows the need to carry out postharvest treatments to improve the quality of the fnal product. Accurate control of the tree water status would allow optimizing the amount of water available for table olive orchards.

The olive tree is well adapted to the Mediterranean climate, however, the current increase in temperature as a consequence of the global warming affects the phenological stages and can accelerate the ripening of the fruits, moving the harvesting to periods that are less favorable for quality production. In this work, the impact of harvesting under low environmental temperature conditions (harvesting at dawn when the lowest temperature of the day occurred) on olive quality is explored, with particular emphasis on bruising. The study was carried out in two consecutive years (2015-2016) and used fruit from two cultivars with different tolerance to bruising (Manzanilla de Sevilla and Manzanilla Cacereña), growing in SHD conditions.

BACKGROUND Mechanical harvesting with over-the-row harvesters in super-high-density (SHD) table olive orchards increases the effectiveness of fruit removal, although bruising can limit the fruit quality. Additionally, an early harvest in periods less favourable to quality production is increasingly frequent as a result of global warming. The present study explores the impact on olive quality of harvesting at dawn when the environmental temperature is low. The study was carried out for 2 years on two cultivars with different tolerance to bruising (‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ and ‘Manzanilla Cacereña’), grown in SHD conditions and harvested at two timepoints: dawn and morning. RESULTS Fruit morphology was not modified by the moment of harvest in either of the cultivars. Fruit harvested at dawn produced less CO2 and ethylene and was less damaged externally and internally compared to fruit harvested in the morning. However, environmental conditions throughout development influenced the response because the highest values of bruising (incidence, area and volume of damaged area), total internal damage and the number of tissue ruptures increased in the year with the hottest summer, and the differences between harvest treatments were less evident.

Los contenidos prácticos constituyen una parte fundamental del programa de la asignatura Propagación Vegetal, impartida en la Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingeniería Agronómica (Universidad de Sevilla), y representan cuatro créditos de un total de seis. Con ellos se pretende consolidar y aplicar los conocimientos teóricos, practicar determinadas técnicas y posibilitar al alumno el desarrollo de destrezas en el manejo de materiales y herramientas propias de los trabajos de obtención de plantas. Con estos objetivos y teniendo en cuenta la disponibilidad de tiempo y medios, se ha diseñado un programa de prácticas que incluye especies hortícolas, frutales, ornamentales y forestales, así como técnicas relacionadas con un amplio número de métodos de propagación

Near Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was evaluated as a fast and easy method for identifying the most interesting cocoa genotypes according to chemical composition, including bioactive compound contents, in more than 80 samples of cocoa beans from the Mexican Germplasm Bank, which were harvested over three years. Clear dif ferences in chemical composition were detected in fermented and dried samples among genotypes. The contents in fat, protein, total sugars, total phenols, phenolic compounds and theobromine were determined for both whole cocoa beans and ground cotyledon samples; and calibration models were developed from the spectra of intact beans, nibs and ground cotyledons. In general, the calibration models obtained for cotyledon composition from the spectra of cocoa nibs and ground beans were better than those obtained from the spectra of intact beans. Fat content showed better calibration statistic values from the spectra of nibs and ground cotyledon (r2 = 0.70). Bioactive compounds, such as theobromine (r2 = 0.77), total sugars (r2 = 0.74), total phenols (r2 = 0.66) and derivatives of epicatechin (r2 = 0.88), together with fat (r2 = 0.70), protein (r2 = 0.64) and husk content (r2 = 0.82), were well-predicted using NIR spectroscopy in intact beans, cocoa nibs and/or ground cotyledon. The potential of NIRS technology was confirmed to support germplasm banks and breeding programs for the rapid identification of interesting genotypes based on their contents in bioactive compounds.

Airborne methodologies based on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) are becoming an extraordinary tool for implementing fast, accurate and affordable phenotyping strategies within plant breeding programs. The aim of this paper was to study the potential use of a previously developed UAV-OBIA platform, to fasten and support decision making for olive breeders regarding the selection of the most promising genotypes in terms of tree geometric traits. In particular, we have studied the feasibility of the system to efficiently classify and select olive genotypes according to four architectural parameters: tree height, crown diameter, projected crown area and canopy volume. These vegetative growth traits and their evolution during the first months after planting are key selection criteria in olive breeding programs. On-ground measurements and UAV estimations were recorded over two years (when trees were 15 and 27 months old, respectively) in two olive breeding trials using different training systems, namely intensive open vase and super high-density hedgerows. More than 1000 young trees belonging to 39 olive accessions, including new cross-bred genotypes and traditional cultivars, were assessed. Even though the accuracy in the UAV estimation compared to the on-ground measurements largely improved the second year, both methodologies detected in both years a high variability and significant differences among the studied genotypes, allowing for statistical comparisons among them. Genotype rankings based on the on-ground measures and UAV estimations were compared. The resulting Spearman’s rank coefficient correlations were very high, at above 0.85 in most cases, which highlights that very similar genotype classifications were achieved from either field-measured or airborne-estimated data. Thus, UAV imagery may be used to assess geometric traits and to develop rankings for the efficient screening and selection of genotypes in olive breeding programs.

Old traditional cultivars are valuable genetic resources for crop improvement, but a great number of them have disappeared in the past century. This study aimed to characterize traditional cultivars of different Prunus species collected in small family orchards in southwestern Spain and to evaluate their genetic diversity and relationships. One hundred and twelve accessions belonging to 36 traditional cultivar denominations were analyzed using eight SSR loci transferable across the genus Prunus. The most useful loci to analyze different Prunus species were UDP96-005, BPPCT-002, UDP98-410 and ps02a12. A total of 152 alleles were observed, and 112 were unique to certain species. Sixty-eight different genotypes were found, revealing the possible existence of homonyms among traditional cultivar names. The clustering analysis was consistent with the taxonomic classification of the different species studied and with the geographical origins of the accessions within each species. The results showed wide genetic variability of traditional cultivars of stone fruits grown in small family orchards, which highlights the need to preserve them using both in-situ and ex-situ strategies. Twenty-eight of these accessions are currently conserved ex-situ at the University of Sevilla, Spain. The use of highly transferable SSRs has been proven as efficient in multi-species surveys performed on-farm.

The need for the olive farm modernization have encouraged the research of more efficient crop management strategies through cross-breeding programs to release new olive cultivars more suitable for mechanization and use in intensive orchards, with high quality production and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The advancement of breeding programs are hampered by the lack of efficient phenotyping methods to quickly and accurately acquire crop traits such as morphological attributes (tree vigor and vegetative growth habits), which are key to identify desirable genotypes as early as possible. In this context, an UAV-based high-throughput system for olive breeding program applications was developed to extract tree traits in large-scale phenotyping studies under field conditions. The system consisted of UAV-flight configurations, in terms of flight altitude and image overlaps, and a novel, automatic, and accurate object-based image analysis (OBIA) algorithm based on point clouds, which was evaluated in two experimental trials in the framework of a table olive breeding program, with the aim to determine the earliest date for suitable quantifying of tree architectural traits. Two training systems (intensive and hedgerow) were evaluated at two very early stages of tree growth: 15 and 27 months after planting. Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) were automatically and accurately generated by the algorithm as well as every olive tree identified, independently of the training system and tree age. The architectural traits, specially tree height and crown area, were estimated with high accuracy in the second flight campaign, i.e. 27 months after planting. Differences in the quality of 3D crown reconstruction were found for the growth patterns derived from each training system. These key phenotyping traits could be used in several olive breeding programs, as well as to address some agronomical goals. In addition, this system is cost and time optimized, so that requested architect

El cacao, es un cultivo perenne ampliamente cultivado en regiones tropicales, entre las latitudes 10°N y 10°S a partir del Ecuador (ICCO, 2018). La producción de grano de cacao seco alcanzó en el año 2013 los 4,2 millones de toneladas, lo cual generó en valor 11,8 billones de dólares (FAOSTAT, 2018), y se prevé un crecimiento del 3,1 % hasta el 2019. En México, la producción de cacao presenta un gran potencial y también muestra una tendencia ascendente, ya que desde el año 1960 hasta el 2013 el crecimiento ha sido del 37 % y en los próximos años se prevé un incremento del 0,5% anual. En ambos casos este crecimiento en la producción de cacao responde al incremento de la demanda a nivel mundial de los productos derivados. El Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP) inició en 1981 un programa de mejora genética del cacao, a través del cual se han establecido, en un Banco de Germoplasma, variedades de origen internacional así como híbridos nacionales. En la actualidad se dispone de algunas selecciones de genotipos en base al potencial productivo, rendimiento en grasa del cotiledón y calidad sensorial, todas con ciertos niveles de tolerancia a enfermedades que actualmente están afectando de forma negativa al cultivo, como son la mancha negra y la moniliasis. No obstante, los estudios relacionados con la calidad del cacao y el valor agregado de los mismos han sido escasos hasta la fecha. Factores como la variedad (genética), ambiente, técnicas de cultivo y el proceso de fermentación influyen en la composición del cotiledón y la cascarilla del cacao. Los parámetros de calidad son diversos: además del peso, el contenido en grasa, proteína y azúcares, el cacao y sus productos derivados destacan por la riqueza en diversos compuestos bioactivos, dentro de los cuales se pueden mencionar los compuestos fenólicos, como los flavanoles y las metilxantinas, que han sido asociados con numerosos beneficios para la salud en la prevención y tratami

New super-high-density (SHD) olive orchards designed for mechanical harvesting using over-the-row harvesters are becoming increasingly common around the world. Some studies regarding olive SHD harvesting have focused on the effective removal of the olive fruits; however, the energy applied to the canopy by the harvesting machine that can result in fruit damage, structural damage or extra stress on the trees has been little studied. Using conventional analyses, this study investigates the effects of different nominal speeds and beating frequencies on the removal efficiency and the potential for fruit damage, and it uses remote sensing to determine changes in the plant structures of two varieties of olive trees (‘Manzanilla Cacereña’ and ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’) planted in SHD orchards harvested by an over-the-row harvester. ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ fruit was the least tolerant to damage, and for this variety, harvesting at the highest nominal speed led to the greatest percentage of fruits with cuts. Different vibration patterns were applied to the olive trees and were evaluated using triaxial accelerometers. The use of two light detection and ranging (LiDAR) sensing devices allowed us to evaluate structural changes in the studied olive trees. Before- and after-harvest measurements revealed significant differences in the LiDAR data analysis, particularly at the highest nominal speed. The results of this work show that the operating conditions of the harvester are key to minimising fruit damage and that a rapid estimate of the damage produced by an over-the-row harvester with contactless sensing could provide useful information for automatically adjusting the machine parameters in individual olive groves in the future.

Thirty-three new genotypes coming from a table olive cross-breeding program were evaluated to assess their adaptability to standard processes, namely Spanish-style and black ripe olives. Different physical and chemical parameters were evaluated in fresh fruits, processed olives and brines. Most of these traits exhibited large variability among all genotypes and within each cross. Seven new genotypes, 05-138, 05-166, 05- 217, 05-322, 05-499, 04-1390 and 04-1396, were selected based on fruit weight, pulp to-pit ratio, olive oil content and bruising parameters. In particular, two genotypes (04- 1355 and 05-271) did not develop fermentation by lactic acid bacteria. Some genotypes had firmness problems in the final product, especially the 02-1000, and in both elaboration processes this cultivar was excessively soft. Other genotypes developed an unacceptable color when they were processed as Spanish-style olives. Nevertheless, all new genotypes could be elaborated as both Spanish-style and black ripe olives by adapting specific criteria in the processes for each genotype. Correlations between traits measured in fresh fruit and those measured in processed olives were explored.

La micropropagación o propagación in vitro se viene utilizado ampliamente para la rápida multiplicación de muchas especies de plantas con interés agrícola y medioambiental, entre ellas la vid. El éxito final de esta metodología a escala comercial depende de la capacidad de transferir un elevado número de plantas a condiciones normales de cultivo con un bajo costo y altas tasas de supervivencia. Las plántulas o brotes que han crecido in vitro se han expuesto de forma continua a un microambiente único seleccionado para proporcionar un mínimo de estrés y condiciones óptimas para su multiplicación. Debido a estas condiciones, las plántulas in vitro pueden desarrollar cierta características morfológicas y fisiológicas distintas a las desarrolladas en invernadero o campo que dificultan su supervivencia cuando se trasplantan al suelo, lo que conduce a unas considerables pérdidas en la última fase de la micropropagación. El presente proyecto de investigación evalúa fisiológicamente el proceso de aclimatación a condiciones ex vitro de plantas propagadas mediante cultivo in vitro de ápices de la variedad de vid Pedro Ximénez. Este estudio se realiza por primera vez para esta variedad. Los resultados obtenidos indican que las condiciones de micropropagación de material vegetal de dicha variedad de vid empleadas permiten obtener plantas óptimamente desarrolladas, que tras 22 días se adaptan en su totalidad a las condiciones externas. Por otro lado, la duración del periodo de conservación in vitro de la planta madre incide significativamente en la precocidad en la respuesta in vitro de los explantos obtenidos. Durante el periodo de adaptación considerado las plantas no crecen ni se detectan tasas de fotosíntesis neta positivas, por lo tanto las plantas sólo respiran, y su inversión energética parece dedicarse principalmente a la regulación de la pérdida de agua. Los nutrientes de las hojas persistentes procedentes del recipiente de cultivo in vitro pudieran ser utilizados para e

Las variedades locales de frutales seleccionadas a lo largo de los años por los agricultores, son muy interesantes para preservar la biodiversidad y los recursos fitogenéticos, ya que presentan unas características organolépticas peculiares y un valor cultural irremplazable. En 2007 se inició un trabajo de recuperación de variedades tradicionales de frutales en Andalucía (Proyecto INIA, RF2007-00027- C06-05) que contempla su prospección, localización, recogida de material vegetal, caracterización morfológica y molecular, multiplicación, documentación y mantenimiento en colección. En este trabajo se han caracterizado morfológicamente mediante caracteres UPOV las flores, hojas y ramos de un año, de cinco variedades tradicionales de manzano (Malus x domestica Borkh.) y dos de melocotonero [Prunus persica (L) Batsch], no estudiadas con anterioridad. Se ha evaluado la floración en la campaña 2011 y se han realizado los fenogramas correspondientes

Andalucía es la segunda región productora de cítricos de España, teniendo por tanto una extraordinaria importancia económica y social. Sin embargo, la cadena de valor de los cítricos comprende un sector productor bastante atomizado frente a unos compradores muy concentrados y organizados, y un mercado poco transparente. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar las necesidades de información de los principales agentes implicados en la cadena de valor de los cítricos y estudiar las posibilidades que tendría la implantación de una plataforma virtual para mejorar las decisiones empresariales en la comercialización de los productos. Para ello, se emplearon fuentes primarias, centradas en la realización de entrevistas a expertos de la producción de cítricos en Andalucía, segmentando el análisis sobre la base de la naturaleza jurídica y la actividad de los entrevistados. Esta acción estratégica puede ser viable puesto que hay una clara demanda de información por parte de la población encuestada, que representa el 65% de la producción citrícola andaluza. Además, se constató que el modelo de gestión debería ser mixto, públicoprivada. La responsabilidad de la misma debería ser privada, ya que en general se percibió cierta reticencia en la Administración. La mayoría de los encuestados estarían dispuestos a pagar por los servicios que suministre la plataforma, si bien señalaron restricciones en cuanto al acceso, calidad del servicio y precio, Andalusia is the second largest citrus producer in Spain, and thus, the citrus industry has an extraordinary economic and social importance in the region. However, the citrus value chain comprises a scattered primary sector in contrast to a very concentrated and well organized purchase and distribution sector, as well as a non-transparent market. The aim of this research was to explore the information needs of the different agents in the citrus value chain and to study the possibilities of implementing a opavirtual platform to share information in order to improve their marketing decisions. Primary sources were used for this work: a survey was conducted among citrus production experts in Andalusia. Survey results were analysed according to the legal nature and the activity of the respondents. The strategic action of implementing an information platform may be feasible since a clear demand for information has been detected from the survey population which represents 65% of the Andalusia citrus production. In addition, a public-private management model was preferred by the respondents to control the platform although the responsibility for it should be private. The majority of respondents would be willing to pay for the services provided by the platform, although some aspects regarding access restrictions service quality and price should be considered

BACKGROUND Super-intensive cultivation facilitates olive mechanized harvesting, allowing substantial savings in the production cost of virgin olive oil (VOO). However, the number of varieties adapted to this type of cultivation is small. This study explores the impact that harvesting with a grape straddle harvester of ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ and ‘Manzanilla Cacereña’ olives grown in super-intensive cultivation has on the physiology of the fruit and the quality of the oil subsequently extracted. RESULTS For both cultivars, fruits harvested mechanically showed higher respiration and ethylene production and lower firmness than fruits harvested by hand. Their oils exhibited lower phenol contents, lower oxidative stability and lower presence of positive sensory attributes. However, in these oils the values of parameters used to assess the level of quality of VOO remained within the limits required for the best commercial category. CONCLUSION Mechanical harvesting of ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ and ‘Manzanilla Cacereña’ super-high-density hedgerows induced physiological alterations in the fruits and a reduction in the contents of natural antioxidants and flavour components in the oils, though it did not result in a loss of the ‘Extra’ level of quality. © 2014 Society of Chemical Industry

Las plantaciones superintensivas de olivar (Olea europaea L.), con densidades superiores a los 1.000 árboles por hectárea, se han convertido en una interesante alternativa al cultivo de olivar de almazara en la que el coste de recolección disminuye por la drástica reducción de la mano de obra y del tiempo requerido por el empleo de cosechadoras cabalgantes. No hay, sin embargo, experiencia alguna en relación al olivar de mesa. El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido evaluar la aptitud de dos variedades tradicionalmente destinadas al aderezo, como son la ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ y ‘Manzanilla Cacereña’, a la recolección con cosechadora cabalgante cuando se cultivan en superintensivo. El trabajo se realizó en septiembre de 2012 y 2014 en una plantación adulta. Antes de la recolección se caracterizaron los setos. Posteriormente se analizó la eficiencia de la recolección mecánica, en términos de porcentaje de frutos derribados y tiempo de recolección, así como las proporciones de frutos con daños. En 2012 también se analizaron los daños en frutos aderezados en verde al estilo sevillano. El tamaño de los setos fue adecuado para la recolección mediante cosechadora cabalgante. La cosechadora derribó prácticamente la totalidad de los frutos en un tiempo no superior a las dos horas por hectárea. La producción media fue mayor en la ‘Manzanilla Cacereña’ que en la ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ y la calidad del fruto apta para la comercialización, si bien los frutos de esta última variedad presentaban una mayor susceptibilidad al daño.

almendro y sus nuevas tecnologías de cultivo, ya que su implantación de manera intensiva en España es relativamente reciente. El objeto del proyecto es la transformación de una parcela de 20,2 ha de olivar en una plantación de almendros con riego localizado. Dicho proyecto ha sido encargado por la familia Rojas-Álvarez. El proyecto tiene diferentes partes: 1. MEMORIA 2. ANEJOS DE LA MEMORIA 3. PLANOS 4. PRESUPUESTO 5. BIBLIOGRAFÍA Se ha realizado un estudio climático de la zona y un estudio del suelo y del agua de riego, todos ellos siendo favorables. Se han seleccionado dos variedades para realizar la plantación: `Lauranne´ y `Marinada´. La variedad `Lauranne´ irá a un marco de 7 x 6 m mientras que la variedad `Marinada´ irá a 7 x 5 m. En cuanto a las técnicas de cultivo, se realizará la poda en vaso y la recolección mecanizada. Se ha realizado un cuadro orientativo de tratamientos fitosanitarios. El riego será por goteo. La inversión a realizar es de 116.088,82 €. El VAN es de 614.277,65 €, el plazo de recuperación son 6 años y el TIR es el 32%.

At a time of increasing demand, the extremely high cost of manual labor required to harvest fruit in table olive groves is limiting the economic survival of the crop in many producing countries. New grove designs and management practices such as superhigh-density (SHD) groves now in use in oil olive production should be explored as an option to facilitate mechanical harvesting in table olives. The feasibility of two table olive cultivars, Manzanilla de Sevilla and Manzanilla Caceren˜a, to be harvested in a 5- year-old SHD grove (1975 trees/ha) was studied in 2012 when trees of both cultivars formed highly productive continuous hedgerows (’10,000 and 18,000 kg·haL1 , respectively). The differences between manual and mechanical harvesting using a grape straddle harvester were evaluated taking into consideration harvesting time, efficiency in fruit removal, and fruit quality both before and after processing as Spanish-style green olives. The average harvest time per hectare with a grape straddle harvester was less than 1.7 hours compared with 576 person/hour or more when done manually. Fruit removal efficiency was high in both cases, 98% for mechanical treatment and 100% for hand treatment. Mechanically harvested fruits had a high proportion of bruising damage (greater than 90%) and the severity of the damage was greater in ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ than in ‘Manzanilla Caceren˜a’. After Spanish-style green processing, however, the proportion of bruised fruits was below 3% in each cultivar. The fruit size in both cultivars was suitable for table olive processing and only 7% and 4% of ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ and ‘Manzanilla Caceren˜a’ fruits, respectively, were diverted to oil extraction as a result of insufficient size. Small differences were found between processed ‘Manzanilla Caceren˜a’ fruits that were manually or mechanically harvested. In contrast, mechanically harvested ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ fruits showed a significantly higher proportion of cutting (18%), a type

Sexual reproduction in olive is carried out for purposes such as breeding. The seedlings evolve from the juvenile to the adult stage, and until now, only the discrete developmental phases have been investigated in detail. However, the transition process has been poorly studied in fruit trees, especially in olive. In this paper, juvenile to adult transition has been explored in 30 olive seedlings coming from the Table Olive Breeding Program of the University of Sevilla, Spain. Despite of the great variability found in the olive leaf morphological parameters, mean values increased linearly from the bottom (juvenile) to the top (adult tissue) of the seedling. An upward lineal decrease in the rooting ability was also observed for the set of seedlings evaluated. No significant differences were found for the maximum net photosynthesis (PNmax) or maximum stomatal conductance (gsmax), although the lowest values were measured at <0.5 m. For all of the analysed parameters, the transitional tissue showed intermediate values. These results show for the first time in olive that the transition along the seedling stem axis follows a clear lineal tendency with a stepwise loss of juvenile characters being the shift from juvenile to adult phase in olive not an abrupt change but a gradual process. The usefulness of a fibre optic probe with a reduced sampling surface coupled to near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was evaluated. NIR analysis has been confirmed to be a useful tool to discriminate the juvenile and adult leaves, but not the transition ones

Sexual reproduction in olive is carried out for purposes such as breeding. The seedlings evolve from the juvenile to the adult stage, and until now, only the discrete developmental phases have been investigated in detail. However, the transition process has been poorly studied in fruit trees, especially in olive. In this paper, juvenile to adult transition has been explored in 30 olive seedlings coming from the Table Olive Breeding Program of the University of Sevilla, Spain. Despite of the great variability found in the olive leaf morphological parameters, mean values increased linearly from the bottom (juvenile) to the top (adult tissue) of the seedling. An upward lineal decrease in the rooting ability was also observed for the set of seedlings evaluated. No significant differences were found for the maximum net photosynthesis (PNmax) or maximum stomatal conductance (gsmax), although the lowest values were measured at <0.5 m. For all of the analysed parameters, the transitional tissue showed intermediate values. These results show for the first time in olive that the transition along the seedling stem axis follows a clear lineal tendency with a stepwise loss of juvenile characters being the shift from juvenile to adult phase in olive not an abrupt change but a gradual process. The usefulness of a fibre optic probe with a reduced sampling surface coupled to near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) was evaluated. NIR analysis has been confirmed to be a useful tool to discriminate the juvenile and adult leaves, but not the transition ones.

Background & Aims There is not a consensus on the best irrigation approach for super-high density (SHD) olive orchards. Our aim was to design and test a regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategy for a sustainable balance between water saving, tree vigour and oil production. Methods We tested our RDI strategy for 3 years in an ‘Arbequina’ orchard with 1,667 trees ha−1. Two levels of irrigation reduction were applied, 60RDI and 30RDI, scaled to replacing 60 % and 30 %, respectively, of the of irrigation needs (IN). We also had a full irrigation (FI) treatment as control, with IN totalling 4,701 m3 ha−1 Results The 30RDI treatment showed the best balance between water saving, tree vigour and oil production. With a yearly irrigation amount (IA) of 1,366 m3 ha−1, which meant 72 % water saving as compared to FI, the reduction in oil yield was 26 % only. Conclusions Our results, together with recent knowledge on the effect of water stress on fruit development, allowed us to suggest a potentially improved RDI strategy for which a total IA of ca. 2,100 m3 ha−1 was calculated. Both some management details and the benefits of this suggested RDI strategy are still to be tested.

Actualmente el sector del olivar en España incluye dos subsectores claramente diferenciados por su aprovechamiento: el olivar de almazara y el de mesa o verdeo, cada uno con unas particularidades específicas que los diferencian, tales como variedades empleada s y técnicas de cultivo como la poda o la recolección. En los últimos años, la necesidad de optimizar los costes de producción ha generalizado la recolección mecanizada mediante brazos vibradores o máquinas cabalgadoras en explotaciones de olivar de aceite. Sin embargo, no se ha extendido de igual manera en plantaciones de aceituna de mesa, debido a los altos porcentajes de frutos dañados por los golpes que se producen durante la recolección mecanizada. El molestado, manchas oscuras en la parte externa del exocarpo de los frutos, hace referencia a los daños provocados en los frutos por los golpes durante la recolección, más notables en la recolección mecánica. Estas manchas deprecian el fruto a nivel comercial con el consecuente rechazo del consumidor. No todos los cultivares presentan la misma susceptibilidad al molestado. ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’, variedad por excelencia de aceituna de mesa, es considerada sensible al molestado lo que dificulta su recolección por medios mecánicos. El Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales de la Un iversidad de Sevilla empezó a trabajar en el año 2003 en un programa de mejora genética de olivo para mesa. Una de las líneas de trabajo dentro de este proyecto ha consistido en estudiar diferentes parámetros de calidad, entre los que se encuentra el molestado. En colaboración con el Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible-CSIC, se ha desarrollado una metodología para evaluar el mismo en aceituna de mesa. En este trabajo se describe anatómicamente el molestado en frutos frescos de ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’, después de un golpe inducido, a los 30 minutos y 24 horas del impacto y fijados posteriormente con FAE (formalina, ácido acético, etanol del 95% y agua destilada (10:5:50:3 5 v/v/v/v)), Currently olive growing in Spain includes two main industries: olive oil and table olives, each of which has its own peculiarities, such as different varieties and specific performance of cultivation techniques like pruning or harvesting. In recent years, due to the need of reducing production costs, mechanical harvesting using trunk shakers or straddle harvesters has become widespread in olive oil orchards. However, that is not the case in table olive plantations, due to the high percentage of fruit damaged by the impacts that take place during mechanical harvesting. The term fruit bruising, dark spots on the outside of the fruit exocarp, refers to the fruit damage caused by impacts during collection, most notably in mechanical harvesting. These spots decreases commercial fruit value, being rejected by the consumer. Not all cultivars have the same fruit bruise susceptibility. Manzanilla de Sevilla, Spanish leading table olive cultivar, is considered to be sensitive to bruising being therefore difficult to harvest by mechanical devices Researchers from the Departamento de Ciencias Agroforestales at the University of Seville, Spain, are working since 2003 on a table olive breeding program. One of the research lines within the program has been to study. different table olive quality parameters, including fruit bruising. An evaluation methodology is being developed to asses this phenomenon in collaboration with the Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible-CSIC. This paper describes anatomical changes related to fruit bruising in 'Manzanilla de Sevilla' fresh fruits after an induced impact. Bruised fruits were chemically fixed in FAE (formalin, acetic acid, 95% ethanol and distilled water (10:5:50:35 v/v/v/v)) 30 minutes and 24 hours after the impact. Histological changes (cell breakage, loss of cell wall thickness and higher colour intensity) produced in the mesocarp of the damaged areas have been evaluated. Histological observations revealed differences between the evaluat

Agronomic practices can modify olive fruit and oil quality. However, there is little information on the influence of fertigation, a common practice in most intensive orchards. We studied nutrient distribution in the soil profile following fertigation with different doses of N-P-K fertilizer, and its effect on nutrient concentrations, yield and both table olive and oil quality. Measurements were performed in an adult 'Manzanilla de Sevilla' olive orchard in which 100, 200 and 400 g N per tree and irrigation period of a 4N-1P-3K fertilizer were applied by fertigation from 1999 to 2001 (three growing seasons) and 200, 400 and 600 g N of the same fertilizer were applied in the two following growing seasons (2002-2003). A control treatment, irrigation without fertilizer, was also established. Irrigation amounts were similar in all treatments. In 2003, NO3-N, P and K concentrations in the root zone wetted by irrigation were studied: they increased with respect to those in the drying zone, showing a general linear relationship with fertilizer dose, particularly in the top soil layer where most of the olive roots were active. In the 600 g N treatment, leaching losses were observed at 0.8-0.9 m depth, possibly leading to groundwater contamination. We found an increase in fruit yield with increasing fertilizer dose, likely due to the observed greater concentrations of NO3-N, P and K in the soil. In fact, our data show a positive relationship between increased soil NO3-N, P and K availability and higher leaf N, P, K concentrations. This could have accounted for the observed increase in canopy volume, fruit number per tree and fruit weight with the amount of fertilizer. Despite the fact that fruit weight, pulp/stone ratio and volume increased with fertilizer dose, reducing sugars, necessary for olive fermentation, and pulp texture decreased. Differences in texture remained after 'Spanish-style' green olive processing. In addition, no differences were found in oil content but it

This work was made with mature 'Manzanilla' olive trees in an orchard of a semi-arid area in southern Spain. Three water treatments were considered: Rainfed, in which the trees had rainfall as the only source of water supply; FAO, in which the trees were under localized irrigation to replace the crop water demand, with some roots left in drying soil; Pond, in which the whole rootzones of the trees were maintained under non-limiting soil water conditions for the whole dry season. Our aim was to obtain information on the mechanisms behind the reduction of transpiration (Ep) in the FAO trees, as compared to the Pond trees. Our results show a near-isohydric behaviour of the FAO trees, i.e. those trees under localized irrigation in which some roots are left in drying showed lower stomatal conductance than the Pond trees in which all roots were in wetted soil. This helped the FAO trees to maintain similar leaf water potentials than the Pond trees. In addition, the FAO trees maintained a constant difference between the water potential of the canopy and that in the soil. This has been described as an isohydrodynamic behaviour, and it is thought to be an improvement over a typically anisohydric behaviour. These mechanisms were behind the similar values of tree hydraulic conductance (K p) found in the FAO and Pond treatments. The Rainfed trees showed lower Kp values because of the low Ep values of those trees, due to the low soil water availability in that treatment. Our results show, however, that the Rainfed trees were able to maintain similar values of Kp all throughout the dry season, which shows that the hydraulic efficiency of the xylem of those trees was little affected by embolism, despite of the high demanding conditions in the area.

El cultivo del olivo en Ar-gentina tiene su origen en la colonización española, sien-do en la localidad de Arauco (La Rioja) donde se realiza-ron las primeras plantacio-nes. Queda el Olivo Cuatri-centenario como testigo de aquella época (Foto 1). El desarrollo del cultivo no tuvo lugar, sin embargo, hasta finales del siglo XIX, como consecuencia de la fuerte in-migración latina que no en-contraba suficiente aceite en el mercado argentino. En 1953 llegaron a estimarse en 7,5 millones los olivos plan-tados en el país; algunos de estos olivares se mantienen cerca de los cascos urbanos (Foto 2). A partir de 1960 se inició, no obstante, una deca-dencia de la olivicultura ar-gentina como consecuencia de la competencia con los aceites de girasol y maíz (en teoría más sanos y baratos), lo que provocó la caída de la rentabilidad de las explota-ciones y, en consecuencia, el abandono de plantaciones o Foto 1. Olivo Cuatricentenario de la variedad 'Arauco', actualmente declarado Monumento Histórico Nacional. Símbolo de la identidad del pueblo arauqueño, se conserva erguido tras haber sido salvado en el Siglo XVII de la tala ordenada por el Rey Carlos III de España, quien temía que la prosperidad del olivo en esta zona pudiera alguna vez superar a su país en la producción de aceitunas. Cuenta una leyenda que esta única planta es la fuente del resurgimiento de la olivicultura no sólo en Argentina, sino también en Chile y Perú, países a los cuales fueron llevados hijuelos.

Table olive quality was analyzed in adult ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ olive trees subjected to different N–P–K fertigation treatments through five years (1999–2003). A randomized block design with four fertigation treatments was established: irrigated without fertilizer (control), and T200, T400, and T600 treatments, in which each tree was respectively fertigated with 200, 400, and 600 g N per irrigation season of a complex 4N– 1P–3K fertilizer applied daily. Fruit yield and fruit physical characteristics and chemical composition were studied in 2002 and 2003. Fruit analysis realized in 2002 showed that the fruit pulp/stone ratio and water content increased with the amount of applied fertilizer. In 2003, a similar trend was found for fruit yield, weight, pulp/stone ratio, volume, longitudinal and transversal diameters, and fruit water and potassium concentrations. On the contrary, the concentration of reducing sugars; Ca, Na, and B; and the fruit texture decreased linearly with the fertilizer dose in 2003. No differences between treatments in fruit and stone shape, or stone volume or polyphenols concentration were found. On the other hand, the effect of the treatments on fruit browning damage was studied in 2003, as well as the fruit quality after ‘‘Spanish-style’’ green processing. In spite of the differences in fruit composition and texture, the fertigation treatments did not affect browning damage. After Spanish-style processing, differences between treatments in fruit weight and texture were again observed, but color, brown spots, and blistering incidence were not modified.

Fertigation is widely used in the new intensive olive orchards, although, there is not enough information for a rational management of this practice. Preliminary results of an fertigation experiment iniciated in 1999 in a mature olive orchard of the cultivar ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ are presented. Four treatments were established: T1(no fertilizer) and T2, T3 and T4, in which the trees received 200, 400 and 600 g N per tree and irrigation season (May to October), respectively, of a dose of a complex 4:1:3 N-P-K fertilizer applied by fertigation. The water used for irrigating the orchard had a nitrate content equivalent to 60 g N per tree, aproximately. Vegetative growth, yield and some variables related to table olive and oil quality were measured in all the treatments. No significant differences between treatments were found on shoot length and yield. Some physical properties, such as mean fruit weight, flesh/stone ratio and volume, increased with the amount of fertilizer applied, while texture and reducing sugars decreased, affecting table olive quality. Oil quality was affected negatively by fertigation since polyphenol content, bitterness, stability and monounsaturated fatty acids decreased when the amount of fertilizer increased. The polyunsaturated fatty acids, however, increased when increasing the fertilizer amount.

We report the results of a study carried out in a ‘Manzanilla de Sevilla’ olive orchard near Seville, Spain, where the influence of different fertigation treatments on oil chemical composition was considered. Four treatments were established: control (no fertilizer) and T200, T400, and T600 in which each tree, respectively, received 200, 400, or 600 g N per irrigation season of a 4N–1P–3K complex fertilizer applied daily from 1999 to 2003. Results shown here correspond to the last 2 years of the experiment, 2002 and 2003. Fruits were sampled at the beginning of ripeness at the ‘‘green’’ stage. Fruit water content increased with the amount of fertilizer, probably because of the increase of potassium in the pulp. Oil content was unaffected by the treatments, but oil yield increased with the fertilizer dose in 2003 as a result of the number of fruits per tree. Polyphenol content, which is related to antioxidant oil capacity, K225 (bitterness), and oxidative stability were lower in the oils made from trees receiving greater fertilizer doses. The monounsaturated fatty acid content, in particular oleic acid, decreased with increasing amounts of applied fertilizers, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids, in particular linoleic acid, increased with it.