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High-grade mucinous colorectal cancer (HGM CRC) is particularly aggressive, prone to metastasis and treatment resistance, frequently accompanied by "signet ring" cancer cells. A sizeable fraction of HGM CRCs (20-40%) arises in the context of the Lynch Syndrome, an autosomal hereditary syndrome that predisposes to microsatellite instable (MSI) CRC. Development of patient-derived preclinical models for this challenging subtype of colorectal cancer represents an unmet need in oncology. We describe here successful propagation of preclinical models from a case of early-onset, MSI-positive metastatic colorectal cancer in a male Lynch syndrome patient, refractory to standard care (FOLFOX6, FOLFIRI-Panitumumab) and, surprisingly, also to immunotherapy. Surgical material from a debulking operation was implanted in NOD/SCID mice, successfully yielding one patient-derived xenograft (PDX). PDX explants were subsequently used to generate 2D and 3D cell cultures. Histologically, all models resembled the tumor of origin, displaying a high-grade mucinous phenotype with signet ring cells. For preclinical exploration of alternative treatments, in light of recent findings, we considered inhibition of the proteasome by bortezomib and of the related NEDD8 pathway by pevonedistat. Indeed, sensitivity to bortezomib was observed in mucinous adenocarcinoma of the lung, and we previously found that HGM CRC is preferentially sensitive to pevonedistat in models with low or absent expression of cadherin 17 (CDH17), a differentiation marker. We therefore performed IHC on the tumor and models, and observed no CDH17 expression, suggesting sensitivity to pevonedistat. Both bortezomib and pevonedistat showed strong activity on 2D cells at 72 hours and on 3D organoids at 7 days, thus providing valid options for in vivo testing. Accordingly, three PDX cohorts were treated for four weeks, respectively with vehicle, bortezomib and pevonedistat. Both drugs significantly reduced tumor growth, as compared to the vehicle group. Interestingly, while bortezomib was more effective in vitro , pevonedistat was more effective in vivo . Drug efficacy was further substantiated by a reduction of cellularity and of Ki67-positive cells in the treated tumors. These results highlight proteasome and NEDD8 inhibition as potentially effective therapeutic approaches against Lynch syndrome-associated HGM CRC, also when the disease is refractory to all available treatment options., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Torchiaro, Petti, Arena, Sassi, Migliardi, Mellano, Porporato, Basiricò, Gammaitoni, Berrino, Montone, Corti, Crisafulli, Marchiò, Bardelli and Medico.)

Understanding immune responses to SARS-CoV-2 messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines is of great interest, principally because of the poor knowledge about the mechanisms of protection. In the present study, we analyzed longitudinally B cell and T cell memory programs against the spike (S) protein derived from ancestral SARS-CoV-2 (Wuhan-1), B.1.351 (beta), B.1.617.2 (delta) and B.1.1.529 (omicron) variants of concern (VOCs) after immunization with an mRNA-based vaccine (Pfizer). According to the magnitude of humoral responses 3 months after the first dose, we identified high and low responders. Opposite to low responders, high responders were characterized by enhanced antibody-neutralizing activity, increased frequency of central memory T cells and durable S-specific CD8 + T cell responses. Reduced binding antibodies titers combined with long-term specific memory T cells that had distinct polyreactive properties were found associated with subsequent breakthrough with VOCs in low responders. These results have important implications for the design of new vaccines and new strategies for booster follow-up., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.)

Most patients with KRAS G12C -mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) experience clinical benefit from selective KRAS G12C inhibition, whereas patients with colorectal cancer bearing the same mutation rarely respond. To investigate the cause of the limited efficacy of KRAS G12C inhibitors in colorectal cancer, we examined the effects of AMG510 in KRAS G12C colorectal cancer cell lines. Unlike NSCLC cell lines, KRAS G12C colorectal cancer models have high basal receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activation and are responsive to growth factor stimulation. In colorectal cancer lines, KRAS G12C inhibition induces higher phospho-ERK rebound than in NSCLC cells. Although upstream activation of several RTKs interferes with KRAS G12C blockade, we identify EGFR signaling as the dominant mechanism of colorectal cancer resistance to KRAS G12C inhibitors. The combinatorial targeting of EGFR and KRAS G12C is highly effective in colorectal cancer cells and patient-derived organoids and xenografts, suggesting a novel therapeutic strategy to treat patients with KRAS G12C colorectal cancer. SIGNIFICANCE: The efficacy of KRAS G12C inhibitors in NSCLC and colorectal cancer is lineage-specific. RTK dependency and signaling rebound kinetics are responsible for sensitivity or resistance to KRAS G12C inhibition in colorectal cancer. EGFR and KRAS G12C should be concomitantly inhibited to overcome resistance to KRAS G12C blockade in colorectal tumors. See related commentary by Koleilat and Kwong, p. 1094 . This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1079 ., (©2020 American Association for Cancer Research.)

Purpose: Defects in the homologous recombination (HR) repair pathway are of clinical interest due to sensitivity of HR-deficient cells to PARP inhibitors. We were interested in defining PARP vulnerability in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC) carrying KRAS and BRAF mutations who display poor prognosis, have limited therapeutic options, and represent an unmet clinical need., Experimental Design: We tested colorectal cancer cell lines, patient-derived organoids (PDO), and patient-derived xenografts (PDX) enriched for KRAS and BRAF mutations for sensitivity to the PARP inhibitor olaparib, and the chemotherapeutic agents oxaliplatin and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Genomic profiles and DNA repair proficiency of colorectal cancer models were compared with pharmacologic response., Results: Thirteen of 99 (around 13%) colorectal cancer cell lines were highly sensitive to clinically active concentrations of olaparib and displayed functional deficiency in HR. Response to PARP blockade was positively correlated with sensitivity to oxaliplatin in colorectal cancer cell lines as well as patient-derived organoids. Treatment of PDXs with olaparib impaired tumor growth and maintenance therapy with PARP blockade after initial oxaliplatin response delayed disease progression in mice., Conclusions: These results indicate that a colorectal cancer subset characterized by poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options is vulnerable to PARP inhibition and suggest that PDO-based drug-screening assays can be used to identify patients with colorectal cancer likely to benefit from olaparib. As patients with mCRC almost invariably receive therapies based on oxaliplatin, "maintenance" treatment with PARP inhibitors warrants further clinical investigation., (©2019 American Association for Cancer Research.)

The long-term efficacy of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR)-targeted antibody cetuximab in advanced colorectal cancer (CRC) patients is limited by the emergence of drug-resistant (persister) cells. Recent studies in other cancer types have shown that cells surviving initial treatment with targeted agents are often vulnerable to alterations in cell metabolism including oxidative stress. Vitamin C (VitC) is an antioxidant agent which can paradoxically trigger oxidative stress at pharmacological dose. Here we tested the hypothesis that VitC in combination with cetuximab could restrain the emergence of secondary resistance to EGFR blockade in CRC RAS/BRAF wild-type models. We found that addition of VitC to cetuximab impairs the emergence of drug persisters, limits the growth of CRC organoids, and significantly delays acquired resistance in CRC patient-derived xenografts. Mechanistically, proteomic and metabolic flux analysis shows that cetuximab blunts carbohydrate metabolism by blocking glucose uptake and glycolysis, beyond promoting slow but progressive ROS production. In parallel, VitC disrupts iron homeostasis and further increases ROS levels ultimately leading to ferroptosis. Combination of VitC and cetuximab orchestrates a synthetic lethal metabolic cell death program triggered by ATP depletion and oxidative stress, which effectively limits the emergence of acquired resistance to anti-EGFR antibodies. Considering that high-dose VitC is known to be safe in cancer patients, our findings might have clinical impact on CRC patients treated with anti-EGFR therapies.

Background: The analysis of circulating free tumour DNA (ctDNA) in blood, commonly referred as liquid biopsy, is being used to characterise patients with solid cancers. Tumour-specific genetic variants can also be present in DNA isolated from other body fluids, such as urine. Unlike blood, urine sampling is non-invasive, can be self-performed, and allows recurrent longitudinal monitoring. The features of tumour DNA that clears from the glomerular filtration barrier, named trans-renal tumour DNA (trtDNA), are largely unexplored., Patients and Methods: Specimens were collected from 24 patients with KRAS or BRAF mutant metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). Driver mutations were assessed by droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) in ctDNA from plasma and trtDNA from urine. Whole exome sequencing (WES) was performed in DNA isolated from tissue, plasma and urine., Results: Out of the 24 CRC cases, only four had sufficient DNA to allow WES analyses in urine and plasma. We found that tumour alterations primarily reside in low molecular weight fragments (less than 112 bp). In patients whose trtDNA was more than 2.69% of the urine derived DNA, cancer-specific molecular alterations, mutational signatures and copy number profiles identified in urine DNA are comparable with those detected in plasma ctDNA., Conclusions: With current technologies, WES analysis of trtDNA is feasible in a small fraction of mCRC patients. Tumour-related genetic information is mainly present in low molecular weight DNA fragments. Although the limited amounts of trtDNA poses analytical challenges, enrichment of low molecular weight DNAs and optimised computational tools can improve the detection of tumour-specific genetic information in urine., Competing Interests: Competing interests: AB is a consultant for Biocartis and Guardant Health. AS-B is an advisory board member for Amgen, Bayer and Sanofi., (© Author (s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. Published by BMJ on behalf of the European Society for Medical Oncology.)

Purpose: Patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models accurately recapitulate the tumor of origin in terms of histopathology, genomic landscape, and therapeutic response, but some limitations due to costs associated with their maintenance and restricted amenability for large-scale screenings still exist. To overcome these issues, we established a platform of 2D cell lines (xeno-cell lines, XL), derived from PDXs of colorectal cancer with matched patient germline gDNA available., Experimental Design: Whole-exome and transcriptome sequencing analyses were performed. Biomarkers of response and resistance to anti-HER therapy were annotated. Dependency on the WRN helicase gene was assessed in MSS, MSI-H, and MSI-like XLs using a reverse genetics functional approach., Results: XLs recapitulated the entire spectrum of colorectal cancer transcriptional subtypes. Exome and RNA-seq analyses delineated several molecular biomarkers of response and resistance to EGFR and HER2 blockade. Genotype-driven responses observed in vitro in XLs were confirmed in vivo in the matched PDXs. MSI-H models were dependent upon WRN gene expression, while loss of WRN did not affect MSS XLs growth. Interestingly, one MSS XL with transcriptional MSI-like traits was sensitive to WRN depletion., Conclusions: The XL platform represents a preclinical tool for functional gene validation and proof-of-concept studies to identify novel druggable vulnerabilities in colorectal cancer., (©2019 American Association for Cancer Research.)

Background: Neoantigens that arise as a consequence of tumor-specific mutations can be recognized by T lymphocytes leading to effective immune surveillance. In colorectal cancer (CRC) and other tumor types, a high number of neoantigens is associated with patient response to immune therapies. The molecular processes governing the generation of neoantigens and their turnover in cancer cells are poorly understood. We exploited CRC as a model system to understand how alterations in DNA repair pathways modulate neoantigen profiles over time., Methods: We performed whole exome sequencing (WES) and RNA sequencing (RNAseq) in CRC cell lines, in vitro and in vivo, and in CRC patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) to track longitudinally genomic profiles, clonal evolution, mutational signatures, and predicted neoantigens., Results: The majority of CRC models showed remarkably stable mutational and neoantigen profiles; however, those carrying defects in DNA repair genes continuously diversified. Rapidly evolving and evolutionary stable CRCs displayed characteristic genomic signatures and transcriptional profiles. Downregulation of molecules implicated in antigen presentation occurred selectively in highly mutated and rapidly evolving CRC., Conclusions: These results indicate that CRCs carrying alterations in DNA repair pathways display dynamic neoantigen patterns that fluctuate over time. We define CRC subsets characterized by slow and fast evolvability and link this phenotype to downregulation of antigen-presenting cellular mechanisms. Longitudinal monitoring of the neoantigen landscape could be relevant in the context of precision medicine.

Background: The diagnosis of colorectal cancer (CRC) is routinely accomplished through histopathologic examination. Prognostic information and treatment decisions are mainly determined by TNM classification, first defined in 1968. In the last decade, patient-specific CRC genomic landscapes were shown to provide important prognostic and predictive information. Therefore, there is a need for developing next generation sequencing (NGS) and bioinformatic workflows that can be routinely used for the assessment of prognostic and predictive biomarkers., Materials and Methods: To foster the application of genomics in the clinical management of CRCs, the IDEA workflow has been built to easily adapt to the availability of patient specimens and the clinical question that is being asked. Initially, IDEA deploys ad-hoc NGS assays to interrogate predefined genomic target sequences (from 600 kb to 30 Mb) with optimal detection sensitivity. Next, sequencing data are processed through an integrated bioinformatic pipeline to assess single nucleotide variants, insertions and deletions, gene copy-number alterations, and chromosomal rearrangements. The overall results are gathered into a user-friendly report., Results: We provide evidence that IDEA is capable of identifying clinically relevant molecular alterations. When optimized to analyze circulating tumor DNA, IDEA can be used to monitor response and relapse in the blood of patients with metastatic CRC receiving targeted agents. IDEA detected primary and secondary resistance mechanisms to ERBB2 blockade including sub-clonal RAS and BRAF mutations., Conclusions: The IDEA workflow provides a flexible platform to integrate NGS and bioinformatic tools for refined diagnosis and management of patients with advanced CRC., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Targeting HER2 is effective in 24% of ERBB2 amplified metastatic colorectal cancer; however, secondary resistance occurs in most of the cases. We studied the evolution of individual metastases during treatment to discover spatially resolved determinants of resistance. Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) analysis identified alterations associated with resistance in the majority of refractory patients. ctDNA profiles and lesion-specific radiographic reports revealed organ- or metastasis-private evolutionary patterns. When radiologic assessments documented progressive disease in target lesions, response to HER2 blockade was retained in other metastases. Genomic and functional analyses on samples and cell models from eight metastases of a patient co-recruited to a postmortem study unveiled lesion-specific evolutionary trees and pharmacologic vulnerabilities. Lesion size and contribution of distinct metastases to plasma ctDNA were correlated., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Attempts at eradicating metastatic cancers with targeted therapies are limited by the emergence of resistant subclones bearing heterogeneous (epi)genetic changes. We used colorectal cancer (CRC) to test the hypothesis that interfering with an ancestral oncogenic event shared by all the malignant cells (such as WNT pathway alterations) could override heterogeneous mechanisms of acquired drug resistance. Here, we report that in CRC-resistant cell populations, phylogenetic analysis uncovers a complex subclonal architecture, indicating parallel evolution of multiple independent cellular lineages. Functional and pharmacological modulation of WNT signalling induces cell death in CRC preclinical models from patients that relapsed during the treatment, regardless of the drug type or resistance mechanisms. Concomitant blockade of WNT and MAPK signalling restrains the emergence of drug-resistant clones. Reliance upon the WNT-APC pathway is preserved throughout the branched genomic drift associated with emergence of treatment relapse, thus offering the possibility of a common therapeutic strategy to overcome secondary drug resistance.

Molecular alterations in genes involved in DNA mismatch repair (MMR) promote cancer initiation and foster tumour progression. Cancers deficient in MMR frequently show favourable prognosis and indolent progression. The functional basis of the clinical outcome of patients with tumours that are deficient in MMR is not clear. Here we genetically inactivate MutL homologue 1 (MLH1) in colorectal, breast and pancreatic mouse cancer cells. The growth of MMR-deficient cells was comparable to their proficient counterparts in vitro and on transplantation in immunocompromised mice. By contrast, MMR-deficient cancer cells grew poorly when transplanted in syngeneic mice. The inactivation of MMR increased the mutational burden and led to dynamic mutational profiles, which resulted in the persistent renewal of neoantigens in vitro and in vivo, whereas MMR-proficient cells exhibited stable mutational load and neoantigen profiles over time. Immune surveillance improved when cancer cells, in which MLH1 had been inactivated, accumulated neoantigens for several generations. When restricted to a clonal population, the dynamic generation of neoantigens driven by MMR further increased immune surveillance. Inactivation of MMR, driven by acquired resistance to the clinical agent temozolomide, increased mutational load, promoted continuous renewal of neoantigens in human colorectal cancers and triggered immune surveillance in mouse models. These results suggest that targeting DNA repair processes can increase the burden of neoantigens in tumour cells; this has the potential to be exploited in therapeutic approaches.

Lactoferrin, a key component of innate immunity, is a cationic monomeric 80-kDa glycoprotein of the transferrin superfamily. Recombinant human lactoferrin, known as talactoferrin (TLF), induces a distinct functional maturation program in human dendritic cells (DCs) derived from peripheral blood monocytes. However, the receptors and molecular mechanisms involved in this induction have not been fully determined. By exploiting genome-wide transcription profiling of immature DCs, TNF-α- and IL-1β-matured DCs (m-DCs), and TLF-matured DCs (TLF-DCs), we have detected a set of transcripts specific for m-DCs and one specific for TLF-DCs. Functional network reconstruction highlighted, as expected, the association of m-DC maturation with IL-1β, TNF-α, and NF-κB, whereas TLF-DC maturation was associated with ERK and NF-κB. This involvement of ERK and NF-κB transduction factors suggests direct involvement of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in TLF-induced maturation. We have used MyD88 inhibition and siRNA silencing TLRs on human DCs and mouse TLR-2-knockout cells, to show that TLF triggers the maturation of both human and mouse DCs through TLR-2 and TLR-4.

Despite spontaneous tumor growth in genetically engineered mice being one of the most recognized tools for the in vivo evaluation of novel diagnostic and therapeutic anticancer compounds, monitoring early stage lesions in live animals is a goal that has yet to be achieved. A large number of targets for the molecular imaging of various diseases have been identified and many imaging technologies, including optical techniques are emerging. One of the most commonly exploited targets in tumor imaging is αv β3 integrin, which plays an important role in the expansion, invasiveness and metastatic capability of a number of cancers, including breast cancer. The aim of this study was to set up an optical imaging method for the early detection of autochthonous mammary cancer in female BALB/c mice transgenic for the rat-ErbB-2 oncogene (BALB-neuT). We show that DA364, a near-infrared fluorescence arginine-glycine-aspartic acid cyclic probe, was taken up by neoplastic mammary glands and that its uptake increased with cancer progression. By contrast, the nonaccumulation of DA364 in the healthy mammary glands of virgin and lactating wild-type mice suggests that the probe specifically targets breast cancers. Comparisons of optical imaging with whole-mount and histological findings showed that DA364 allows the noninvasive visualization of atypical hyperplasia and microscopic foci of in situ carcinoma 2 months before mammary lesions become detectable by palpation. Moreover, DA364 was successfully used to monitor the outcome of anticancer vaccination. Therefore, it can be considered a promising early detection tool in near-infrared noninvasive optical imaging for the early diagnosis of breast cancer., (Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)