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Precision agriculture aims to maximize yield with optimum resources. Vast majority of natural systems are acknowledged as complex and non-linear. However, prior to formulation of precise models, linearity tests are performed to validate plant behavior. This study has presented proof that the water uptake system in monopodial orchid is indeed non-linear. The change in physical growth of root and stem due to temperature and relative humidity factors are observed. The work focused on Ascocenda Fuchs Harvest Moon x (V. Chaophraya x Boots) orchid hybrid. Three complementary methods are presented: linearity tests through 1) regression fitting; 2) scatter plots; and 3) cross-correlation function tests. Root diameter, stem diameter, temperature, and relative humidity are logged at 15 minutes interval for a duration of 71 days. The polynomial equations derived for root diameter and stem diameter changes attained strong regression coefficients. The non-linear behavior is further confirmed by the scatter plots where no linear associations are present between the independent and dependent variables. Subsequently, the cross-correlation function tests conducted on temperature-root diameter, temperature-stem diameter, relative humidity-root diameter, and relative humidity-stem diameter combinations also revealed weak correlation. Despite using different techniques, the behavior of physical changes has been consistently proven to be non-linear.

Como elemento genético altamente conservado, el polen es fundamental en el reconocimiento de un taxón. Por tanto, se estudió la diversidad de algunas especies de Passiflora L., por medio de caracterización palinológica, mostrando su importancia como herramienta para elucidar la controversia taxonómica del género. Para esto se tomaron 30 muestras de polen, las cuales fueron analizadas bajo microscopías óptica (acetólisis) y electrónica de barrido MEB, representando 20 especies de Passiflora. Se incluyó la especie-tipo del género, P. incarnata, y P. macrophylla (única especie arborescente monopodial del subgénero Astrophea). Palabras-clave: género Passiflora, polen, acetólisis, MEB

Bu çalışma çinko uygulama yöntemlerinin pamukta verim, verim bileşenleri, bitki gelişimi ve lif kalite özelliklerine olan etkisini belirlemek amacıyla yürütülmüştür. Çalışma Siirt Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Tarla Bitkileri bölümü deneme alanında 2016 yılında tesadüf blokları deneme desenine göre 4 tekrarlamalı olarak yürütülmüş ve denemede materyal olarak Stoneville 468 pamuk çeşidi ile çinko gübresi kullanılmıştır. Denemede 7 farklı uygulama (kontrol, toprağa 200 g/da, toprağa 400 g/da, toprağa + taraklanma öncesi dönemde yaprağa, taraklanma öncesi dönemde + çiçeklenme başlangıcı döneminde yaprağa, taraklanma öncesi dönemde + çiçeklenme öncesi dönemde + çiçeklenme döneminde yaprağa, çiçeklenme öncesi dönemde + çiçeklenme döneminde yaprağa) yer almıştır. Çinko uygulamalarının kütlü pamuk verimi, ilk el kütlü oranı ve çırçır randımanı üzerine önemli etkisinin olduğu belirlenmiş ve uygulamalar arasında önemli istatistiki farklılıklar elde edilmiştir. Koza açma süresi, bitki boyu, odun dalı sayısı, meyve dalı sayısı, koza sayısı, ilk meyve dalı boğum sayısı, boğum sayısı, boy/nod oranı, koza ağırlığı, koza kütlü ağırlığı ve 100 tohum ağırlığı bakımından ise farklılıkların önemli olmadığı belirlenmiştir. Çinko uygulama yöntemlerinin pamuğun lif kalite özelliklerinden lif inceliği, lif uzunluğu, lif kopma dayanıklılığı, lif sarılık değeri ve lif parlaklık değerine etkisinin önemsiz olduğu, lif kopma uzaması, lif üniformite oranı, kısa lif oranı ve iplik olabilirlik indeksi bakımından uygulamalar arasında önemli farklılıkların bulunduğu saptanmıştır. Taraklanma öncesi dönemde + çiçeklenme başlangıcı döneminde yaprağa 2 kez uygulanan çinko uygulaması ile toprağa + taraklanma öncesi dönemde yaprağa uygulanan çinko uygulamasının incelenen özelliklerin birçoğu üzerinde önemli etki yarattığı tespit edilmiştir.

Three deep-sea black corals belonging to the family Schizopathidae, are reported from two seamounts on the Caroline Ridge in the tropical Western Pacific: Umbellapathes parva sp. nov. with depth of 1 488–1 766 m, Telopathes cf. magna MacIsaac & Best, 2013 with depth of 937–1 016 m, and Stauropathes cf. punctata (Roule, 1905) with depth of 942–1 353 m. The latter two species are the first records in the Western Pacific Ocean. U. parva sp. nov. is characterized by monopodial corallum, relatively long unpinnulated stalk with complex pinnulated branches developing from the lowermost primary pinnules and small spines. It differs from two known congeners by much smaller spines and the present of secondary pinnules. T. cf. magna MacIsaac & Best, 2013 has sparsely branched corallum, relatively long and simple pinnules arranged in subopposite or alternate pairs. S. cf. punctata (Roule, 1905) is characterized by the corallum with almost planar pinnulated branches, and pinnules arranged in subopposite pairs. Our results indicate that the corallum size and shape are variable in conspecific specimens particularly those at different growth stages. By contrast, the size of the polypar spines as well as the abpolypar spines have little variation and can be served as a main differing feature for schizopathid species. The phylogenetic analyses using nuclear internal transcribed spacer region (spanning partial 18S rDNA, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2, and partial 28S rDNA) and two mitochondrial fragments cox3-IGR-cox1 (COI) and trnW-IGR-nad2 (NAD2) showed Telopathes, Stauropathes, and Bathypathes had close relationships, and Umbellapathes formed a sister clade with Alternatipathes.

Background Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is grown for fiber and oil purposes in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world. Pakistan is the 4th largest producer of cotton. It has a significant contribution in the GDP of Pakistan. Therefore, the present study was performed to assess the genetic variations and genetic diversity of yield and fiber quality traits in cotton and to analyze the associations present among them. Results Analysis of variance exhibited significant variation for all studied traits except total number of nodes and the height to node ratio. The phenotypic coefficient of variation was higher than the genotypic coefficient of variation for all studied traits. Plant height, monopodial branches, total number of bolls, lint index, seed index, and seed cotton yield displayed high heritabilities in a broad sense with maximum genetic advance. Correlation analysis revealed that seed cotton yield had a significant positive association with plant height, the number of monopodial branches, the number of sympodial branches, ginning outturn (GOT), the number of bolls, seed per boll, seed index, uniformity index, the number of sympodial branches, reflectance, and seed index at the genotypic level while a significant positive relationship was observed with plant height, the number of sympodial branches, boll number, and GOT. Plant height, monopodial branches, GOT, boll weight, seeds per boll, and short fiber index exerted direct positive effects on seed cotton yield. The first 6 principal component analysis (PCs) out of the total fourteen PCs displayed eigenvalues (> 1) and had maximum share to total variability (82.79%). The attributes that had maximum share to total divergence included plant height, uniformity index, the number of sympodial branches, seed per boll, GOT, seed cotton yield, and short fiber index. Conclusion The genotype AA-802, IUB-13, FH-159, FH-458, and CIM-595 were genetically diverse for most of the yield and fiber quality traits and could be utilized for the selection of better performing genotypes for further improvement.

Garcinia L. is a pantropically distributed genus with high species richness in South East Asia. It is a tropical evergreen plant with distinct morphological characteristics and has a high degree of endemism. Outstanding features of the Garcinia L. genus are monopodial growth, leafy texture, oil cavities containing yellow or light-colored resins present on all parts of the plant and polygamodioecious reproductive behavior. The current study was conducted to develop barcodes for different species of the genus Garcinia L., distributed widely in the Western Ghats of India. We assess the discrimination power of the plant DNA barcode (rbcL, matK, trnH-psbA, rpoB-trnCGAR and ITS), across major Garcinia L. species. Our results clearly demonstrate the value of plastid barcode data, previously unavailable for Garcinia L. species. Ten Garcinia L. species and three outgroup taxa selected from the Western Ghats of India for evaluation using four regions in the plastid genome (rbcL matK, trnH-psbA, rpoB-trnCGAR) and nuclear-transcribed spacer (nrITS) in order to discriminate them at the species level. A characteristic feature of all barcodes, maximum likelihood analysis, and Wilcoxon signed-rank test were used for species discrimination. The number of conserved sites were more using matK primer whereas more variables and informative sites found in rpoB-trnCGAR loci. For internal branches of species-specific clusters, maximum likelihood analysis showed a more resolved topology. Wilcoxon signed-rank test indicated a higher divergence for coding and non-coding regions. DNA barcoding was found to be a practical and rapid method for identifying more endemic species. These findings will potentially be helpful in delineating the various species of Garcinia L.

The biomorphological features of Hydrilla verticillata (L. fil.) Royle in tropical and temperate regions of the Eurasian part of the geographical range have been studied. The shoot system is long-growing and sympodial, consisting of (annual)oligoennial monopodial shoots of main and subordinate orders. The number of leaves per node; shape, length, and width of leaf blade; branching peculiarities; and the length of the internode are the most variable signs. Hydrilla verticillata is a perennial (vegetatively oligoennial) polycarpic rooting long-shoot high turion-tuber vegetative–mobile hydrophyte. The flexibility of biomorphs in different biotypes is manifested by the duration of shoot ontogenesis and by a change in the ratio of the specialized vegetative diasporas. Turions and tubers are the two alternative models for maintaining the population.

Background: Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) is the most important fiber crop of the world and commonly known as white gold. It plays an important role in the economy of Pakistan. It provides raw material to the local textile industry and generates a considerable amount of foreign exchange. It plays a vital role in the economy of Pakistan. The yield of cotton is lower in Pakistan. Knowledge of association among different traits is important for the development of cultivars with better yield and quality characters. Results: In this research, two parents (PB-38 and Jambo Okra) and their crosses sown in randomized complete block design with three replications to sort out best performing genotypes for these profitable traits (plant height, number of sympodial branches, number of monopodial branches, leaf type, boll size, boll shape, number of bolls per plant, boll weight, ginning out turn, 100 seed weight and seed cotton yield). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that parental and their F population showed significant differences for all the observed traits. Correlation and inheritance pattern of all characters provides information of association among all traits and percentage of inheritable attributes. Conclusions: The association and inheritance pattern study provides us useful information for effective selection and sustainable breeding programs. Heritability estimations revealed that heritability of traits fluctuate as following order; monopodial branches> ginning outturn>boll weight>sympodial branches>plant height>yield>number of bolls plant-1 with heritable percentages 99%, 90%, 89%, 64%, 60%, 60% and 55% respectively.

Camptotheca acuminata Decne (Nyssaceae) (happy tree, tree of life, cancer tree) is a rapidly growing deciduous and endangered tree endemic to east Tibet and southern China (Liu et al., 2002). C. acuminata is an ornamental tree with monopodial growth, beautiful leaves and shade- and cold- tolerant in their natural environment. Recently, its demand has grown rapidly due to secondary metabolites production like Camptothecin and its derivatives with anti cancer and antivirus activity. The aim of the present study was to develop an efficient protocol for in vitro micropropagation of this valuable plant. Different cultural media based on both MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) or DKW (Driver and Kuniyuki, 1984) formulations with different cytokinins (6-benzylaminopurine, BAP or 2-isopentenyladenine, 2iP or meta-topolin, mT) have been involved. The aromatic cytokinin meta-topolin stimulated plant growth. The optimum multiplication rate of Camptotheca shoots occurred on the DKW basal medium, supplemented with 2.5 µM meta-topolin, grown under mixed LED light. The highest number of roots per plantlets was recorded on the rooting medium with 0.3 mgl-1 NAA.

Despite the considerable interest of many researchers in the Celastrales order, which is largely due to the great diversity of structural features and almost cosmopolitan distribution (except for some arid regions), no comprehensive biomorphological analysis of its representatives has been undertaken so far. The goal of this work is to analyze the structural and rhythmological features of shoots and shoot systems (vegetative and reproductive) of representatives of the Celastrales order, the volume of which is accepted according to the latest data of molecular phylogenetics (APG IV). The main working tool of such an analysis is the concept of architectural models. Among the studied representatives of the order, the following architectural models are identified (Halle et al., 1978): Rauh, Attims, Champagnat, Mangenot, Scarrone, Stone, McClure, and Tomlinson. The shoot systems belong to three types: (1) polycarpic polycyclic with monopodial or acrosympodial growth and intercalary or pseudoterminal inflorescences with an orthotropic, plagiotropic, and/or mixed orientation of shoots in space and with sylleptic and proleptic shoots at the rhythm of development; (2) monocarpic mono- and dicyclic and terminal inflorescences; and (3) monocarpic monocyclic—once blooming, with sympodial growth and terminal inflorescences and with elongated or shortened shoots. In all these cases, the nature of the blooming of flowers is basipetal. For herbaceous and semiwood representatives (Parnassia, Stackhousioideae), models of shoot formation revealed by Russian biomorphologists are also used (Serebryakova, 1981): monopodial rosette (generative shoots monocarpic monocyclic, with single flowers, and terminal) and sympodial semirosette (generative shoots are monocarpic monocyclic, but with acropetal blooming of flowers in the inflorescence). The taxon as a whole is characterized by the formation of axillary complexes very different in structure and rhythms of development, which allows successfully using these features in characterizing individual species and in establishing evolutionary trends. Thus, for representatives of the Celastrales order, the structural diversity of shoot systems has been revealed which is the basis for the formation of different biomorphs. A high degree of ecological and morphological plasticity is manifested in the individual and intraspecific polymorphism of shoots, the dependence of the ratio of different types of shoots on environmental conditions, the possibility of changing the model during ontogenesis, and the formation of models of transitional character (Celastrus, Tripterygium). The possibility of rapid transformation of the entire shoot system under extreme environmental conditions by the example of the genus Parnassia and the subfamily Stackhousioideae is shown.

Based on a biomorphological analysis, the structural organization of the Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. plant is described. The shoot system is represented by semiroselatte polycarpic vegetative–generator axes; the shoot formation model is a monopodial semiroselatte. The anatomical structure of the N. nucifera stem, petiole, and peduncle corresponds to representatives of monocotyledon plants.

An experiment was performed to detect the genetic diversity and heat tolerance in sixty cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) genotypes at Cotton Research Station D. I. Khan during the crop Season 2016–2017 in randomized complete block design in which three replications were used. These genotypes were evaluated for various morphological [plant height (cm), monopodial branches plant−1 and sympodial branches plant−1, bolls plant−1, boll weight (g) and seed cotton yield (g plant−1)], physiological [relative cell injury percentage (RCI%) and chlorophyll content] and fiber quality traits [ginning out turn (%), fiber strength (g tex−1), micronaire value (µg inch−1), fiber length (mm) and uniformity index (%)]. Genetic analysis revealed that genotypes were containing marked phenotypic variabilities. High values of GCV, PCV, heritability and genetic advance were found for monopodial branches plant−1, boll weight, seed cotton yield plant−1, RCI%, chlorophyll contents and micronaire value. Variable trends of RCI% among the genotypes showed different levels of cell membrane thermostability. The results of RCI% indicated that Neelam-131 (32.34%), Sitara-008 (36.26%), Sitara-009 (39.89%) and Thakkar-80 (40.22%) had lower RCI% which depicted their higher cell membrane thermostability. These four genotypes were also superior in seed cotton yield having 124.12 g, 112.78 g, 102.63 g and 98.25 g plant−1 respectively. Three principle components were depicted having Eigen value > 1 and cumulative variation of 70.4% in which the contribution of individual PCs was; PC1 (48.3%), PC2 (11.3%) and PC3 (10.9%). Score plot revealed that Auriga-216, VH-Gulzar, Thakkar-80, Neelam-131, Sitara-008, BH-184, CRIS-600IR-NIBGE-7, VH-327 and FH-Noor were the most divergent genotypes and hence can be effectively utilized in the future breeding program.

A new species, Dilochia deleoniae Tandang & Galindon (Orchidaceae), from Mindanao Island, Philippines is described and illustrated herein. This species is distinct from other known Philippine Dilochia species by its terrestrial habit and is distinguished from all known Dilochia species by its monopodial inflorescence, rarely branching in two, and a pale yellow to dull orange or brownish-yellow labellum devoid of purple spots.

The structure of Thymus petraeus individuals has been studied architecturally. It has been established that in the south of Siberia the species occurs in similar habitats: in true, meadow, sandy steppes and their petrophytic variants on the slopes and low rocky peaks of hills. According to the classification proposed by I.G. Serebryakov (1964), T. petraeus is a vegetatively semimobile dwarf shrub with a system of the main root that is persistent throughout its life and with rooting runners. Three architectural units that differ in the spatial position of the compound skeletal axis (orthotropic–plagiotropic, plagiotropic, and orthotropic) have been identified in the structure of T. petraeus individuals. Each architectural unit consists of the main compound skeletal axis, compound skeletal axes of the 1st order, formation shoots, branching shoots, and enrichment shoots. It is shown that the structure of individuals can be formed by repeating only two architectural units. It is established that the structure of individuals growing in the true steppes and their petrophytic variants is built at the expense of the repetition of orthotropic–plagiotropic and plagiotropic architectural units. That in sandy steppes is built at the expense of repetition of plagiotropic and orthotropic architectural units. The features of T. petraeus development in specific ecological and coenotic conditions are shown. In this regard, we have characterized (1) morphological polyvariance, which is based on changes in the structure of shoots (shortened and elongated) and the composition of architectural units (no compound skeletal axes of the 1st order or enrichment shoots); (2) dimensional polyvariance, manifested in a change in the length and number of compound skeletal axes; and (3) dynamic polyvariance, associated with fluctuations in the duration of the monopodial growth of shoots formation (from 2 to 5 years) and the architectural unit as a whole (from 6 to 20 years). The revealed modifications of architecture do not lead to a change in the life form of the dwarf shrub, but reflect the mechanisms of its adaptation.

We focus on controlling morphological and histochemical responses of the shoot apical meristem (SAM) and root apical meristem (RAM) of bamboo node by using a simple and versatile liquid culture system. First, nodes of 11 different bamboo species that belong to seven major bamboo genera (Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys, Tetragonocalamus, Chimonobambusa, Pleioblastus, and Sasa) were cultured using 2 mL per well of a liquid medium in a 6-well microplate to form a small-scale liquid culture environment (SLCE). The dormant lateral buds of all bamboo nodes resumed expanding and elongating within 7 days in the SLCE. The dormant and active lateral buds were sectioned longitudinally and stained with Sytox green (SG) to monitor mitotic activity and counterstained with safranin (SF) to detect the inward region of the SAM region. Further, mitotic activity was calculated using a digital imaging analysis, which showed an increase of up to 1.2- to 3.8-fold in terms of the SG/SF ratio after 7 days in the culture. Moreover, we used in vitro node cultures of two typical bamboo species, the sympodial clump-forming type (Bambusa multiplex Raeush, Bm) and the monopodial single culm-forming type (Phyllostachys meyeri McClure, Pm), and noted the following: 1) since gradual white-to-green tinge shoots were observed, we investigated the relation between color variation in the outer regions of culm and node tissues and their suitability as explants. By checking the autofluorescence property of whole shoots under LED 365 nm illumination with an RGB (red, green, and blue) digital imaging analysis using ImageJ software, we specified the color variation of explants as the relative intensity of the blue value. 2) Since the obtained shoots of a 1-month-old culture box showed growth variation, we distinguished shoot types based on plant height, i.e., short (less than 5 cm), medium (ca. 5 - 10 cm), and tall (more than 10 cm). Tall shoots that have ca. 5 nodes on average were suitable for explant. 3) Three types of node portions—the first node (the base node near a rhizome tissue), middle nodes (upper nodes near the 1st node), and the top meristem—were independently cultured in the SLCE, and it was found that the first node showed the best growth performance. 4) By culturing the first node in the SLCE system, we performed a quick survey during the 3 weeks in the culture and found that a combination of 10 μM benzyl adenine and 3 μM thidiazuron was effective for in vitro SAM development, while the addition of 2, 4-D was effective for promoting in vitro RAM development. 5) The detailed autofluorescence properties of the outer regions of culm and node tissues were also identified using an inverted fluorescent microscope under B- and U-excitation lights with RGB and HSB (hue, saturation, and brightness) digital imaging analysis.

For the first time, a comparative analysis of the structure of the apical meristem and the node of the main shoot of two forms of the indeterminate kind Namangan-77 and the determinant line of Determinant-2 and Determinant-3 of G. hirsutum in the kidney ding phase was carried out. In the apical meristem of the indeterminate form Namangan-77 is characterized by the recessive homozygous state of the mutant gene (inlinl) and the dominant homozygous, heterozygous state of the fruiting branch gene S-s: inlinlSS, inlinlSs, inlinlss—more pronounced vegetative, vegetative, with this, this form is predominated by the continuation of first-order shoots and the monopodial branching type with unlimited apical growth, accompanied by a uniform elongation of the internodes. In the apical meristem, in the forms of the determinant lines, Determinant-2 and Determinant-3 are characterized by the dominant homozygous state of the mutant gene (InlInl) and the recessive homozygous state of the allelic gene (ss)—InlInlss—there is a generative collateral kidney in the axillary leaf axial sinus, which is why these forms of the vegetative apex of the shoot when they transit to the reproductive state turn into a floral apical meristem and a sympodial branching type what happens through the development of inflorescences. Obviously, this is a consequence of a change in the phytohormonal status in the apical part of the stem as a result of the interaction of the mutant gene Inl and gene S. The node of the main stem in all forms was also studied, and a three-beam-three-lacuna type of structure was revealed, which is a fairly persistent characterizing feature of large taxa and can be used in their taxonomy.

The field experiment was performed at Adaptive Research Farm Karor, Layyah by sowing cotton variety (MNH-886) @ 25 kg ha -1 . The experiment was conducted by Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with a factorial arrangement and 3 replications. The fertilizer NPK was applied as per recommendation and standard agronomic practices were given at a proper time. The maximum cotton seed germination (m -2 ) was 37.00 with soaking the seed in potassium chloride solution. Maximum number of plants m -2 was (32.667) in treatment soaking seed in potassium chloride solution. Whereas a minimum number of plants m -2 were (20.66) in the control treatment. Maximum plant height (cm)was observed in treatment soaking the seed in potassium chloride solution. Whereas minimum plant height was recorded in the control treatment. Maximum monopodial branches were observed in treatment soaking the seed in potassium chloride solution, followed by soaking the seed in water for 12 hours (hydro-priming) which is statically at par with soaking the seed in calcium chloride solution. Whereas a maximum number of sympodial branches were recorded at soaking the seed in potassium chloride solution (23.33). Seed priming of cotton seed with water and salts have no affect on the number of squares, flowers, open bolls plant -1 and boll weight (g). Maximum average yield was (2700.00 kg ha -1 ) in treatment soaking seed in potassium chloride solution. Whereas minimum seed cotton yield was (2338 kg ha -1 ) in the control treatment. Maximum seed cotton yield was (901.07kg ha -1 ) in treatment soaking seed in potassium chloride solution. Whereas minimum seed cotton yield was (773.70kg ha -1 ) in the control treatment. Maximum seed lint yield was (1797.7 kg ha -1 ) in treatment soaking the seed in potassium chloride (KCl) solution. Whereas minimum seed cotton yield was (1545.6 kg ha -1 ) in the control treatment. Maximum seed index was (9.0167gm) in treatment soaking the seed in potassium chloride solution (KCl). Whereas the minimum seed index was (7.6133gm) in the control treatment. Seed priming of cotton seed with water and salts have no effect on the uniformity index (%), UHML fiber length, and micro narie value. Maximum GOT (%) was (46.033%) in soaking seed in potassium chloride solution (KCl). Whereas, minimum GOT was (42.863%) in the control treatment.

Plant endemic species are the result of continuous evolution under the combined action of long-term climatic and geological conditions. There are 534 bamboo species in China, and 371 endemic species account for about 70% of all bamboo species. However, little is known about the differences in the rhizome evolution rate between endemic and non-endemic bamboos. Here, we collected morphological traits (height and leaf length) and environmental variables (including climate, space, and soil) of all 534 Chinese bamboo species to determine the relative contribution of environmental factors and traits of bamboo rhizome evolution with different endemism by structural equation modeling. We found that endemic bamboo had a higher speciation rate than non-endemic bamboo. The distribution centers of sympodial bamboos are mainly located in the mountain range of southwest China, while amphipodial and monopodial bamboos are distributed with higher latitude farther east in China. The height of non-endemic sympodial and monopodial bamboos was significantly higher than endemic sympodial and monopodial bamboos. The leaf length of non-endemic sympodial bamboos was significantly higher than endemic sympodial bamboo, while the leaf length of non-endemic amphipodial bamboo was significantly lower than endemic amphipodial bamboo. Environmental factors and traits explain 47% of the evolutionary variation of non-endemic bamboo species, while they explain 17% of that of endemic bamboo species. Longitude, latitude, and leaf length were the critical factors in the rhizome evolution of non-endemic bamboo, while longitude and height were the critical factors in the rhizome evolution of endemic bamboo. Our results imply that for higher species formation rates, endemic bamboo should be more concerned than non-endemic bamboo in the process of bamboo rhizome evolution. It will likely appear that new non-endemic bamboo species have a short leaf length in higher latitude and farther east in China (the lower Yangtze plain), as well as new endemic bamboo species with a low height farther east in China (the Wuyi Mountains). Meanwhile, ancient non-endemic bamboo with a long leaf length in Yunnan Province and ancient endemic bamboo with a high height in the Hengduan Mountains may be more likely to become extinct. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding the difference in the rhizome evolution of endemic and non-endemic bamboos, which provides new insights into the conservation of Chinese bamboo biodiversity.

Ginkgo biloba L. has significant health benefits and considerable economic value, but harvesting the fruit is highly labor-intensive. Mechanical vibration harvesting has been shown effective in harvesting various fruit types. In the study of vibration harvesting, the research on the vibration characteristics of fruit trees focuses on the natural frequency (resonance frequency), model, and damping coefficient, which are the main factors affecting the vibration characteristics of trees. But field harvesting experiments have shown that the tree structure may have an impact on the vibration characteristics of the fruit tree and the efficiency of mechanical harvesting. In addition, the research on the damping coefficient of fruit trees is mainly low-frequency damping, and the relevant results cannot be applied to the actual vibration harvesting frequency range. Applying a natural frequency with low damping coefficient to excite a tree can reduce additional energy dissipation. This study explored the influence of ginkgo crown structure on the vibration characteristics and the law of damping changes with frequency. After counting 273 ginkgo trees, two typical ginkgo crown structures, monopodial branching and sympodial branching, were selected to be analyzed for vibration spectrum and damping coefficient. The vibration models for different crown-shaped ginkgo trees were simulated to analyze the vibration state at different frequencies. For sympodial branching ginkgo trees, the consistency of natural frequencies at different branches was better than monopodial branching ginkgo trees. The finite element model analysis shows that monopodial branching ginkgo trees have mainly partial vibrations at different branches when vibrating at high frequencies. The high-frequency vibrations in sympodial branching reflect the better overall vibration of the canopy. The damping coefficients for the two crown types decreased with the increase in frequency. The monopodial branching damping coefficient was 0.0148–0.0298, and the sympodial branching damping coefficient was slightly smaller at 0.0139–0.0248. Based on the test results, the sympodial branching ginkgo tree has better vibration characteristics. The results indicate that controlling the crown structure of fruit trees to be sympodial branching by pruning may help improve the overall vibration characteristics of fruit trees.

The agrobacterium based transformation of herbicide-resistant crops has modernized weed management in crops by producing cost-effective and ecosystem friendly transgenic plants. Cotton is one of the major crops which are grown worldwide due to its great economic value in textile industries. Dicamba is a commonly used herbicide in broadleaf plants to kill a wide range of weeds in many dicotyledonous crop fields since the 20th century. In this study, Eagle 2 cotton variety was transformed with the DMO gene which is responsible for the synthesis of the Dicamba monooxygenase enzyme that exhibits tolerance against the Dicamba herbicide. This entire study was conducted at Four Brothers Genetics Lab, Lahore. Transformed cultures of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens with the DMO gene were acquired. Cotton embryos were isolated and co-cultivated with transformed Agrobacterium cultures under sterile conditions. Transformed embryos were grown on an artificial growth medium and acclimatized under favorable conditions. Healthy and stable plants were shifted infield where they were grown into a mature plant. Leaf samples of these plants were collected and DNA was successfully isolated by the CTAB method. Transformed plants were confirmed by Polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis. Variations in different traits among transformed cotton plants were found which indicated that the transgenic plant 4 showed higher plant height, monopodial and sympodial branches, leaf length, leaf width, number of bolls, and bolls weight. The better performance of plant 4 indicated that the yield potential of the transgenic plant was improved as compared with other transgenic cotton plants.

Clonal plants in heterogeneous environments can benefit from their habitat selection behavior, which enables them to utilize patchily distributed resources efficiently. It has been shown that such behavior can be strongly influenced by their memories on past environmental interactions. Epigenetic variation such as DNA methylation was proposed to be one of the mechanisms involved in the memory. Here, we explored whether the experience with Ultraviolet B (UV-B) radiation triggers epigenetic memory and affects clonal plants’ foraging behavior in an UV-B heterogeneous environment. Parental ramets of Glechoma longituba were exposed to UV-B radiation for 15 days or not (controls), and their offspring ramets were allowed to choose light environment enriched with UV-B or not (the species is monopodial and can only choose one environment). Sizes and epigenetic profiles (based on methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism analysis) of parental and offspring plants from different environments were also analyzed. Parental ramets that have been exposed to UV-B radiation were smaller than ramets from control environment and produced less and smaller offspring ramets. Offspring ramets were placed more often into the control light environment (88.46% ramets) than to the UV-B light environment (11.54% ramets) when parental ramets were exposed to UV-B radiation, which is a manifestation of “escape strategy.” Offspring of control parental ramets show similar preference to the two light environments. Parental ramets exposed to UV-B had lower levels of overall DNA methylation and had different epigenetic profiles than control parental ramets. The methylation of UV-B-stressed parental ramets was maintained among their offspring ramets, although the epigenetic differentiation was reduced after several asexual generations. The parental experience with the UV-B radiation strongly influenced foraging behavior. The memory on the previous environmental interaction enables clonal plants to better interact with a heterogeneous environment and the memory is at least partly based on heritable epigenetic variation.

Lagonychium farctum (Banks & Sol.) Bobr.is a wild plant growing in the deserts of Upper Egypt as a prickly perennial shrub with monopodial branches. It belongs to family Leguminosae. The plant is usually branching from the base and attains up to 2.5 m in height. It is used in traditional system of medicine as an astringent as well as antidysenteric. The present study investigates various standardized parameters such as macroscopic and microscopic characters which could be helpful in authentication of the seed of Lagonychium farctum. (Banks & Sol.) Bobr.

The endemic Philippine genus of Amesiella is small, epiphytic, monopodial herbs with few leathery leaves sheathing at the base. Inflorescence is short and carries up to five relatively large, pure white flowers that open together. Three species occur in the mountains of Luzon, of which one is also present in Mindoro.

A small genus with only two epiphytic, monopodial species, Diploprora is distributed from India and China to Myanmar, Thailand and Laos. Stems are pendulous, flattened, branched with distichous, lanceolate leaves sheathing at the base. Inflorescence is lateral, laxly several flowered. Flowers appear a few at a time, spreading widely (Pearce and Cribb 2002; Chen and Wood 2009).

This study was conducted to observe the effects of exogenous gibberellic acid3 (GA3) and 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) treatments on the growth and inflorescence initiation of Phalaenopsis and to determine whether hormonal applications can substitute for low-temperature exposure for floral transition. Phalaenopsis Queen Beer &lsquo, Mantefon&rsquo, clones were treated with no hormones (control), GA3 100 mg/L, GA3 200 mg/L, BAP 100 mg/L, and GA3 100 mg/L + BAP 100 mg/L by foliar spray. The treatments were carried at 28 &deg, C for vegetative growth and 20 &deg, C for forcing, respectively. At 28 &deg, C of vegetative temperature, all exogenous hormonal treatments did not induce inflorescence initiation, but lateral shoots were observed in BAP-treated plants even though this plant is a monopodial orchid. GA3 significantly increased leaf length and decreased leaf width, and consequently increased length:width (L:W) ratio compared with the control and BAP alone. The trend grew as GA3 concentration increased. Also, the GA3 increased stem length and decreased stem diameter. At 20 &deg, C of forcing temperature, L:W ratio responded similarly to 28 &deg, C in GA3 treatments, but leaf size was smaller than for the control or BAP alone. BAP accelerated inflorescence emergence and significantly increased inflorescence numbers, whereas GA3 and GA3 + BAP slightly delayed inflorescence emergence. GA3 significantly promoted new leaf development at 20 &deg, C of forcing condition. These results indicated that cytokinin was associated with the break of axillary vegetative and inflorescence meristems and exogenous GA3 spray did not improve inflorescence initiation in Phalaenopsis. Although exogenous hormonal application did not substitute for low-temperature exposure, it showed a possibility in promoting the growth and inflorescence initiation.

Some human organs are composed of bifurcated structures. Two simple branching modes—monopodial and dipodial—have been proposed. With monopodial branching, child branches extend from the sidewall of the parent branch. With dipodial branching, the tip of the bronchus bifurcates. However, the branching modes of the human bronchial tree have not been elucidated precisely. A total of 48 samples between Carnegie stage (CS) 15 and CS23 belonging to the Kyoto Collection were used to acquire imaging data with phase-contrast X-ray computed tomography. Bronchial trees of all samples were three-dimensionally reconstructed from the image data. We analyzed the lobar bronchus, segmental bronchus, and subsegmental bronchus. After calculating each bronchus length, we categorized the branching mode of the analyzed bronchi based on whether the parent bronchus was divided after generation of the analyzed bronchi. All lobar bronchi were formed with monopodial branching. Twenty-five bifurcations were analyzed to categorize the branching mode of the segmental and subsegmental bronchi; 22 bifurcations were categorized as monopodial branching, two bifurcations were not categorized as any branching pattern, and the only lingular bronchus that bifurcated from the left superior lobar bronchus was categorized as dipodial branching. The left superior lobar bronchus did not shorten during the period from CS17 or CS18, when the child branch was generated, to CS23. All analyzed bronchi that could be categorized, except for one, were categorized as monopodial branching. The branching modes of the lobar bronchus and segmental bronchus were similar in the mouse lung and human lung; however, the modes of the subsegmental bronchi were different. Furthermore, remodeling, such as shrinkage of the bronchus, was not observed during the analysis period. Our three-dimensional reconstructions allowed precise calculation of the bronchus length, thereby improving the knowledge of branching morphogenesis in the human embryonic lung.

The morphostructure of the bulbs of Oxalis incarnata in the conditions of dormancy and the plant’s growth and development are described. The plants were grown in two irrigation modes: 1) with regular irrigation during the year, and 2) with limited irrigation in March-October and without irrigation in November-February. The bulbs were analyzed by way of consequent detaching of the scales. Investigated bulbs always had four fleshy scales, while the number of coriaceous and membranous scales varied. Coriaceous scales, together with two fleshy outer scales, make a protective envelope of the bulb. The overground shoot of O. incarnata, just like in other species of the genus, demonstrates monopodial growth and can produce up to five levels of lateral branches. Elongated parts of overground shoots serve for new territories’ useful occupation, while shortened parts produce new particles. Resting buds (bulbils) of three types were observed in O. incarnata: underground axillary buds, overground axillary gemmae, and terminal gemma. Our investigations showed polyvariance both of organogenesis of the resting buds and ontogenesis of plants in general, depending on irrigation regimes. In the case of limited irrigation, the plants of O. incarnata shed the leaves and can produce terminal gemma. While in the case of regular irrigation during the year, they remain evergreen and form gemmae exclusively in the leaves’ axils. We did not observe the formation of terminal gemmae in the case if axillary gemmae were present. The root system of O. incarnata has a complex structure. It consists of two crowns of the filamentary roots, contractile roots, and additional adventitious roots located along the underground part of the shoot during its growth. Such structure of the root system probably ensures better absorption of the water.

Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. (Sleeping Hibiscus) is a species of flowering plants belonging to family Malvaceae with a natural distribution throughout Central and South America. However, this perennial, medium-sized shrub has been also widely cultivated in several other tropical and subtropical areas of the globe. Sleeping Hibiscus is characterized by an erect, cylindrical, and glabrous stem with monopodial branching, reaching up to 0.5‒1 m in height and 0.2‒1 cm in diameter. The stem carries simple, alternate, oval or ovate to broadly cordate leaves and red solitary flowers. Flowers of Sleeping Hibiscus are tube-shaped with totally wrapped petals that only slightly open at the top, carried on hairy, pendulous green pedicels. Besides their ornamental value, M. arboreus plants enjoy multiple folk, medicinal, and culinary applications worldwide owing to their wide range of bioactive secondary metabolites, principally phenolics. Hence, in continuance of our interest in this medicinal plant, which included formerly the comprehensive botanical description of its leaves, along with the phytochemical and biological characterization of its leaf and stem extracts, this paper presents the macro- and microscopical characters of M. arboreus stems and flowers. Such botanical data collectively draw a helpful image regarding the identification and authentication of this plant species.

A random mating design comprising 6 varieties (FH-142, MS-DK, IUB-63, KZ-189, FB-3159, and VH-300) and F1 crosses was used to check gene action for yield contributing traits in upland cotton. Heritability and correlation were calculated from F3 populations of the cross CRS-456×Jumbo okra. The randomized complete block design was used in both experiments with three replication at the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan during 2015-2017. In both experiments, analysis of variance indicated significant variation present among the accessions of the upland cotton for all the traits (plant height, sympodial and monopodial branches, nodes number of 1st sympodial branch, height of 1st sympodial branch, bolls per plant, boll weight, lint weight, seed cotton yield, seed index, lint percentage, lint index, seeds per boll, fiber fineness, fiber strength, fiber length and fiber uniformity) under study. Mean values of all genotypes were significantly different from each other for all the traits studied. All the parameters manifested positive correlation with seed cotton yield except plant height, monopodia per plant, nodes number of 1st sympodia, height of 1st sympodia, bolls per plant, seed index and lint index. The inheritance of all the traits in F1 crosses was generally controlled by overdominance gene action except monopodial branches, nodes number of 1st sympodial branch, height of 1st sympodial branches, boll weight, fiber length and fiber uniformity that were partially controlled under additive gene action. Epistasis was not found to be involved in any of the traits. Estimation of broad sense heritability (h2 b. s) in F3 populations were high (60-97%) for all the traits under study. Results suggested form heritability and correlation that these traits can be improved either through appropriate selection method or hybrid breeding programme.

European species of Nuphar are amongthe most accessible members of the basal angiosperm grade, but detailed studies using scanning electron microscopy are lacking. We provide such data and discuss them in the evolutionary context. Dorsiventral monopodial rhizomes of Nuphar bear foliage leaves and non-axillary reproductive units (RUs) arranged in a Fibonacci spiral. The direction of the phyllotaxis spiral is established in seedlings apparently environmentally and maintained through all rhizome branching events. The RUs can be located on dorsal, ventral or lateral side of the rhizome. There is no seasonality in timing of their initiation. The RUs usually form pairs in positions N and N + 2 along the ontogenetic spiral. New rhizomes appear on lateral sides of the mother rhizome. A lateral rhizome is subtended by a foliage leaf (N) and is accompanied by a RU in the position N + 2. We hypothesize a two-step process of regulation of RU/branch initiation, with the second step possibly involving environmental factors such as gravitropism. Each RU has a short stalk, 1-2 scale-like phyllomes and a long-pedicellate flower. We support a theory that the flower is lateral to the RU axis. The five sepals initiate successively and form two whorls as 3 + 2. The sepal arrangement is not ‘intermediate’ between whorled and spiral. Mechanisms of phyllotaxis establishment differ between flowers and lateral rhizomes. Petal, stamen and carpel numbers are not precisely fixed. Petals are smaller than sepals and form a whorl. They appear first in the sectors of the outer whorl sepals. The stamen arrangement is whorled to chaotic. The merism of the androecium tends to be the same as in the corolla. Flowers with odd numbers of stamen orthostichies are found. These are interpreted as having a non-integer merism of the androecium (e.g., 14.5). Carpels form a whorl in N. lutea and normally alternate with inner whorl stamens. Sterile second whorl carpel(s) are found in some flowers of N. pumila.

This study illustrated the physiological and psychological effects of watching videos of different durations showing bamboo forests with varied structures. Physiological indicators, including EEG (electroencephalogram), blood pressure, skin conductance, and pulse, were monitored in 180 Chinese university students (mean age: 20.72 &plusmn, 2.56 years) while they were watching bamboo videos. Before and after watching the videos, their psychological indicators, including positive and negative moods, were measured using the Profile of Mood States questionnaire. After watching the bamboo videos of different durations, all of the physiological indicators responded to the stimulation after only 1 min. The indicators showed different trends at 1, 3 and 5 min. EEG decreased and then was maintained at a stable level after 1 min, and the high &beta, low &beta, and &alpha, waves had no significant differences between 1, 3 and 5 min. Blood pressure dropped to a stable state after 3 min, and the decline was significantly different greater after 3 min than after 1 min. Skin conductance increased for 1 to 5 min, and it did not stabilize after a long time (5 min). Pulse decreased after 1 min but increased after 5 min. After watching the videos with bamboo of varying structures, the physiological and psychological indicators showed significantly different changes. Skin conductance significantly increased (mean value: 6.78%), and the amount of sweat was more effectively reduced, thereby reducing tension, when the students viewed videos of sympodial bamboo forests compared with monopodial bamboo forests. Bamboo forests with a higher canopy density (0.83&ndash, 0.85) could significantly decrease &alpha, waves (mean value: 1.50 Hz), relaxing the human body. High &beta, and low &beta, waves showed greater decreases, with tension reduced more effectively, when bamboo forests with a low tilt ratio (&lt, 1.5%) were viewed. Bamboo forests with neat undergrowth could have more beneficial physiological and psychological effects on the human body.

The Vanda pumila is a monopodial orchid with beautiful flowers that are native to Thailand but now found across South Asia. The immature seeds of Vanda pumila were used for in vitro culture and then the protocorms developed were used as explants for seedling development and mass propagation. Protocorms were cultured on 1/2 MS (Murashige and Skoog, 1962) medium fortified separately with Kinetin (Kn), 6-Benzyl amino purine (BAP) and Gibberellic Acid (GA3) each in different concentrations as (0.5 mg/L, 1.0 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L) well as each on each concentrations of each medium supplemented with 5% and 10% coconut water (CW) respectively. The greatest number of shoots (9.50 ± 0.29 shoots per culture) was developed on 1/2 MS medium fortified with 1.0 mg/L Kn plus 10% CW and the longest shoots (0.78 ± 0.07 cm per culture) developed on 1/2 MS medium fortified with 2.0 mg/L BAP plus 10% CW. The shoots derived from protocorms were then developed on 1/2 MS medium fortified with three different rooting hormones viz. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), Indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) and α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), each in four concentrations (0.5 mg/L, 1.0 mg/L, 1.5 mg/L and 2.0 mg/L) as well as 1.0 mg/L of each hormone supplemented with 10% CW. The 1/2 MS medium fortified with 0.5 mg/L IAA was found to be the most effective condition for the development of maximum number of root (5 ± 0.0 roots per culture) and root length (0.93 ± 0.07 cm). Hence, the present study could be useful for standardizing the protocol for mass propagation of the endangered orchid V. pumila.

In conifers with spiral phyllotaxis, two numbers: one of the vascular sympodia and the second of cortical resin canals, define the shoot anatomic diameter. This in turn reflects the size and vigor of the apical meristem. Both numbers belong to the mathematical series, associated with the shoot phyllotactic pattern. The number of canals is one step lower in a series than the number of sympodia. The first one, easier to determine, automatically defines the second. Using this protocol and screening the large number of branching shoots of selected conifers, we have discovered strong correlation between orientation of vascular sympodia in the lateral and supporting branches. There was no such correlation with regard to the chiral configurations of phyllotaxis. This finding reveals the presence of special phyllotactic compensation in the case of differences in anatomic diameter of the parental and lateral shoot under the imperative of maintaining the sympodia orientation within one branching unit. Phyllotaxis of the axillary apex is evidently not established at random but adapted to the condition of the subtending axis. The monopodial, regularly branching shoot of conifers is an attractive example of biological system, which is not a sum of independent, iteratively formed units. Rather, it appears to be an entity organized on hierarchically higher level, which emerges from coordination of developmental processes in a population of the units.

The variety of life forms and the structure of individuals and ontomorphogenesis of T. extremus, T. indigirkensis, T. brevipetiolatus, and T. pavlovii under the conditions of Yakutia have been studied. It has been established that the formation of two life forms and three types of biomorphs is characteristic for the species: a monocentric vegetatively immobile dwarf subshrub (T. extremus), an implicitly polycentric vegetatively semimobile dwarf subshrub and dwarf shrub (T. indigirkensis and T. brevipetiolatus respectively), and an obviously polycentric vegetatively mobile dwarf subshrub (T. pavlovii). The basis of the adult shrub is a monopodially sympodially growing compound skeletal axis which differs in individuals of Thymus by the method of growth and position in space. An analysis of the development of species in Yakutia allowed us to identify common and specific features. Common features for the species are the predominance of the dwarf subshrub living form and its morphological plasticity, a small variety and shortening of the morphogenesis phases, a shallow rejuvenation of the ramets, a prolonged monopodial growth of shoots (up to 10 years), and the predominance of rosette shoots in the structure of the individual. Differences are revealed depending on the conditions of specific habitats of species. When T. extremus grows on a flat surface and high sludge, a dense primary shrub is formed. In the free areas of the substrate with stepwise depressions of the microrelief, the primary shrub T. extremus is loose. In T. brevipetiolatus, which grows in the steppe on the hillside, the structure of the individual is formed only by rosette shoots, their prolonged monopodial growth is maintained due to the preservation (for 1–2 years) of dry leaves. For T. pavlovii growing on a mossy substrate, this is the characteristic lodging of shoots, their intensive rooting and strengthening of vegetative mobility, and a reduction in the duration of ontogenesis of individuals due to the rapid decay of maternal structures. The revealed features of Thymus development are the mechanisms of morphological adaptation, which provide species survival in different environmental conditions of Yakutia.

The aim of this study was to fit and select height–diameter and stem volume equations for two African mahogany species (Khaya ivorensis and Khaya anthotheca) in the initial development phase (between 2 and 5 years old), established in agroforestry systems in northeastern Brazil. We used linear and nonlinear models to predict the total height (h) and stem volume (v), based on data from forest inventories and stem measurements of standing trees. We tested the following hypotheses: (1) the simple linear model is the most accurate to estimate the total height of young African mahogany trees in relation to different types of height–diameter models (linearized, nonlinear and those with transformed variables); (2) simple and double-entry stem volume models have the same precision in estimating the individual volume of young African mahogany trees. The results showed that the simple linear height–diameter model was most accurate to estimate the height of both African mahogany species. The age’s effect (young trees) and probably the predominantly monopodial development of the Khaya spp. trees sampled were discussed as the causes of the linear nature of the models that best described the height–diameter relationship. The stem volume equations for Khaya ivorensis and Khaya anthotheca were well adjusted. However, the double-entry Spurr’s model was more accurate than the other models for both species. Furthermore, for the Khaya ivorensis, the one-entry (diameter) Husch’s model generated similar stem volume estimates to Spurr’s model.

Lobelia dortmanna L. is one of the few rare, slowly growing relic plants occupying areas of the littoral zone of water bodies with low nutrient content and subject to wave action. Even in such difficult conditions, this plant successfully passes its entire life cycle, actively blossoms and fruits. That is why the peculiar features of the individual development of this plant in various geographical conditions is a matter of great interest. For the first time, this study considers in detail the ontogeny of the genet of L. dortmanna in oligotrophic lakes of Tver oblast. Detailed characteristics of the following age stages of individuals are given: resting seeds, seedlings, juvenile, young and adult vegetative, latent generative, middle-aged and old generative and quasisenile plants. It is shown that the transition to the juvenile age stage occurs at the end of the first year of life, the virginile age stage lasts two years, and the generative stage of development occurs in the fourth year of life. The change in the growth pattern of the rosette main shoot of Lobelia, from orthotropic to anisotropic, occurs in the second year of life. The establishment and further development of the generative organs of the plant and associated change in the growth of the main shoot from monopodial to simpodial occurs in the fourth year of life. At the same time, the branching of the main shoot begins by formation in the axils of the uppermost assimilating leaves (the last in front of the apical inflorescence) – 1–2 lateral rosette shoots. These are future ramets (vegetative diasporas), which ensure, in the future, the vegetative reproduction of the individual and spread to new territories. Taking into account that in lakes of Tver oblast, Lobelia groupings form dense aggregated clusters on the bottom, the transition of individuals to a quasisenile age state (in the fifth year of life) enables them to rejuvenate and survive after the death of the maternal shoot. The formation and further development of rosette lateral shoots allows the plant to re-occupy the territory via vegetative or seed propagation. Complete morphological disintegration (vegetative reproduction) occurs in the fifth year of life. The genets’ ontogeny is completed by the formation of a compact clone from the detached lateral rosette shoots.

The present study is focussed on development of a high-frequency micro-multiplication system in Calamus thwaitesii, through somatic embryogenesis from immature zygotic embryos cultured in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 31.68 µM 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D). The semi-friable calli when cultured in the same medium augmented with 2.22 µM 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and 1.07 µM α-naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) induced ~ 12 discrete globular embryoids in 6 weeks. The isolated embryoids in hormone-free media yielded 65% plantlets. Furthermore, embryoids and axenic shoots exhibited maximum shoot induction in medium supplemented with 0.45 µM Thidiazuron (TDZ). The shoot initials after subculture in media supplemented with 1.78 µM BAP and 0.45 µM TDZ produced shoot proliferation followed by elongation in basal medium. The elongated shoots produced roots in media supplemented with 16.11 µM NAA. With this established protocol, ~ 5940 rooted plantlets could be harvested after 40 weeks from a single embryoid. Genetic stability analysis of the plantlets using inter simple sequence repeat markers recorded only 0.05% genetic polymorphism. The plantlets were hardened in a mist house for 8 weeks, and then to 50% shade house for another 16 weeks, and the well-established 6-month-old nursery plants, reintroduced to selected forest segments, exhibited 86% field establishment even after 3 years of observation. Thus, the mass multiplication system developed could be a breakthrough for large-scale multiplication of C. thwaitesii to ensure continuous supply of quality planting material to the cottage industry through the development of agroforestry systems. Furthermore, the in vitro culture system developed here can be replicated for research activities related to the long-term–short-term conservation, micro-multiplication and sustainable utilization of rare, endangered, endemic, monopodial/single stemmed rattan palms.

Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) forest plays an irreplaceable and significant effect on carbon sequestration and the adaptation of forestry to climate change in South China because of its high growth rate and adaptability to adverse environmental conditions. There may be a relationship between rhizomes and ramets because moso bamboo, as a monopodial running bamboo, grows belowground by rhizome branching and elongation and spreads ramets aboveground. This study used terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to accurately quantify the above- and belowground structure and dynamics of moso bamboo forests after reforestation, indicating that the number and carbon storage of rhizomes exhibited significant “on-year” and “off-year” features and in even-numbered years were significantly higher than those in odd-numbered years. No significant variation was found in the average diameter of the rhizome (DR), while the average diameter at breast height (DBH) increased significantly from the 3rd year, and the three greatest increases in DBH occurred after the year in which rapid rhizome growth occurred. The depth of the rhizomes ranged from 3.54 to 38.47 cm, and the rhizomes were mainly distributed in the 10–30 cm soil layer. The angles of the rhizome and subrhizome (ARSR) were mainly less than 30°and increased over time. Rhizomes store and allocate nutrients by increasing the length and number of rhizome segments (NRS) and normally maintain connections over tens of metres. Both the number and biomass of culms were significantly positively correlated with the total NRS, total length of rhizomes, number of rhizomes and rhizome biomass under different rhizome-culm systems. We used a linear equation ( y = 4.112 x + 9.337 , R 2 = 0.7605 , R M S E = 19.36 ) to accurately estimate the rhizome biomass based on the aboveground biomass and the ratio of aboveground and rhizome carbon storage (RCS) to accurately estimate RCS in different years after reforestation.

Wild cherry trees produce high-quality timber and provide multiple ecosystem services. However, planting and tending cherry stands in conventional rows are too costly. Therefore, low density group planting was trialled as an alternative to row planting. The mortality, growth, and quality of planted cherry trees were compared between the group and row planting. The influence of neighbourhood competition and light availability on growth and quality was studied. The group and row planting of cherry trees were established at a wind-thrown site in southwestern Germany in the year 2000. In group planting, five cherry seedlings and seven lime seedlings (Tilia cordata Mill.) were planted with a 1 × 1 m spacing. In total, 60 groups were planted per hectare with a 13 × 13 m spacing. In contrast, 3300 seedlings (2475 cherries and 825 limes) were planted per hectare in row planting with a 3 × 1 m spacing. Ten groups and plots (10 × 10 m) were randomly established in group and row planting stand, respectively. The survival rate, stability (height to diameter ratio), diameter, and height growth were significantly higher in group planting. In the group plantings, 40.5% of cherry trees had straight stems and 13.5% had a monopodial crown compared with 15% with straight stems and 2% with a monopodial crown in row planting. The proportion of dominant cherry trees in canopy was 49% in groups compared with 22% in rows. The length of branch free bole was significantly higher in cherries planted in groups than those grown in rows. Intra- and interspecific competition reduced the growth and stability of cherry trees in row planting, but not in group planting. Light availability did not cause any significant effects on growth and quality between group and row planting. This first study on cherry group planting indicates that the survival rate, growth, and tree quality were higher in groups than in rows at this early development stage. The competition by naturally born seedlings was an important reason for the difference in performance between group and row planting. This study will encourage forest practitioners to establish more cherry group planting trials on multiple sites to test the effectiveness of this alternative technique as a tool of regeneration and restoration silviculture.

Facilitation by a neighboring woody understory has been suggested as a cost-effective and sustainable way to regenerate oaks. However, concerns about reduced plant growth and quality due to competing neighboring vegetation have hindered implementation. Here we studied competitive effects from herbaceous and woody vegetation on survival, growth, canopy development and stem quality in pedunculate oak ( Quercus robur ) in an open-field experiment in southern Sweden. Oaks were grown for eight years in four different competition treatments: no competing vegetation, with herbaceous vegetation (mainly grasses), with woody vegetation, and with both herbaceous and woody vegetation. During the first four years, competition had little effect on oak survival. However, after eight growing seasons, survival rates decreased to about 20% for oaks surrounded by woody vegetation, in contrast to oaks grown with only herbaceous vegetation that had a survival rate of near 100%. Competition from herbaceous and woody vegetation both reduced oak stem diameter and height growth, but they affected height growth differently. During the first growing seasons, oaks in the treatment with woody vegetation were able to keep up with the height growth of the surrounding vegetation. Thereafter, height growth stagnated, and after eight growing seasons heights of oaks in the treatment with woody competitors were only 30–39% that of oaks in the treatment without competing vegetation. In contrast, competition from herbaceous vegetation only restricted oak height development marginally. Interspecific competition not only restricted growth and survival but also shifted shoot architecture, resulting in a greater frequency of oaks with straight monopodial stems. Although competition from both herbaceous- and woody vegetation positively affected stem straightness, plots with woody vegetation had a greater proportion (0.42) of oaks with a single straight monopodial stem. Our results demonstrate that the facilitative competitive effects from herbaceous and woody vegetation could be used to control allocation patterns in young oaks, promoting development of tall straight monopodial stems. Considering the observed trade-off between high stem quality and survival, we recommend long-term assessment of this trade-off prior to application in practical forestry.

Phyllostachys edulis (Carriere) J.Houz. (Moso bamboo) is a monopodial, indigenous, widely distributed, highly productive, and economically important bamboo of China. Its growth rate is markedly higher than any other tree species and known as the fastest growing plant in the world. It is a monopodial bamboo develops from long, slender, leptomorph rhizomes that grow horizontally under the soil. It has some superior attributes in terms of adaptation to environmental stress, extensive competitive ability, fast growth rate, high biomass productivity, multi-purpose applications, such as for furniture, building materials, and decoration, ease in cultivation, short cutting time (4–5 years), and high ecological values as compared to other bamboo species. P. edulis in China has threatened the associated rare/endangered species as it expands quickly. It has well-developed, massive, and complex root pattern and have effectively accumulated bio available metals and rapidly transported them to rhizomes, stems, branches, and leaves, making it as a potential phytoremediation plant. It is also known as the most promising species for carbon sequestration with high biomass production and biomass accumulation and carbon storage mainly occurs in the initial growth stage. In this chapter, effort has been made to provide critical information on the role of P. edulistoward provisioning ecosystem services, and nature sustainability to enable planning for sustainable utilization and conservation of bamboo.

The paper presents comparative-morphological analysis of biomorphs Limosella aquatica L., stolon-rosette perennial mesophyte grasses (Viola odorata L.), and yearling vegetative hydrophytes (Stratiotes aloides L. and Hydrocharis morsus-ranae L.). It is shown that L. aquatica is a monopodial growing monocarpic with side stolon-rosette shoots and their systems with up to four branching orders. The primary shoot, as well as rosette parts of stolon-rosette shoots, is made of metamers with foliage leafs, axil complexes with differently sets of constituents: two collateral buds and/or their derivatives: flower buds/flowers/fruit, side stolon-rosette shoots or their systems. At the initial stage the shoot-forming mode of L. aquatica is similar to that of V. odorata: a monopodial rosette one with green assimilating leaves, flowers, and stolon-rosette shoots. But iterative branching of stolon-rosette shoots changes the shoot-forming mode of L. aquatica to a sympodial semirosette as in S. aloides, and especially in H. morsus-ranae. Biomorph L. aquatica combines the features of stolon-rosette perennial mesophyte grasses and stolon-rosette yearling vegetative hydrophytes: stolon-rosette shoot formation from axil buds, iterative branching, collateral buds, reduction inflorescence to one flower (S. aloides). Thus of habit L. aquatica can be viewed as a stage of perennial flower mesophyte plants’ shifting to life in water.