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Serial dependence is a recently described phenomenon by which the perceptual evaluation of a stimulus is biased by a previously attended one. By integrating stimuli over time, serial dependence is believed to ensure a stable conscious experience. Despite increasing studies in humans, it is unknown if the process occurs also in other species. Here, we assessed whether serial dependence occurs in dogs. To this aim, dogs were trained on a quantity discrimination task before being presented with a discrimination where one of the discriminanda was preceded by a task-irrelevant stimulus. If dogs are susceptible to serial dependence, the task-irrelevant stimulus was hypothesized to influence the perception of the subsequently presented quantity. Our results revealed that dogs perceived the currently presented quantity to be closer to the one presented briefly before, in accordance with serial dependence. The direction and strength of the effect were comparable to those observed in humans. Data regarding dogs' attention during the task suggest that dogs used two different quantity estimation mechanisms, an indication of a higher cognitive mechanism involved in the process. The present results are the first empirical evidence that serial dependence extends beyond humans, suggesting that the mechanism is shared by phylogenetically distant mammals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Since most people globally own a pet, it is important to understand and assess the features of the owner–pet relationship. The Cat-/Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (C/DORS) is a questionnaire aimed at investigating specific aspect of pet-owner relationships. This tool has never been tested for validity or reliability on cat owners in Italy. We achieved this aim by translating and back translating the C/DORS from the original English into Italian and modifying the original response options from 1–5 to 1–7 to increase variability in responses. We determined the most appropriate factor model, which was the same one reported for the English version (i.e., Perceived Emotional Closeness = PEC, Pet–Owner Interactions = POI, Perceived Costs = PC). We confirmed its construct validity by correlating the C/DORS subscales with the Lexington Attachment to Pets (LAPS) subscales. We found a higher score for POI and PEC for those cats living exclusively indoors compared with indoor/outdoor cats. People that also owned a dog scored lower in POI but higher in PC. Similarly, behaviour problems, not being neutered, and lack of previous experience with cat ownership were associated with lower scores on PC. Globally, most people now own a pet. Scales have been developed to understand the impact of pet ownership on people's lives and to measure specific aspects of the owner–pet relationship. The Cat-/Dog-Owner Relationship Scale (C/DORS) is a tool developed to investigate this relationship in both dog and cat owners. The aim of the study was to refine and validate the C/DORS for cat owners in Italian. Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were used to determine the most appropriate factor model. Construct validity was confirmed by correlating the C/DORS subscales with the Lexington Attachment to Pets (LAPS) subscales. Results confirmed the original structure of the English version (i.e., three factors: Pet Owner Interaction = POI, Perceived Emotional Closeness = PEC, Perceived Costs = PC) and CFA confirmed the structure of LAPS and C/DORS scales. Cronbach's alpha demonstrated the Italian version of the two scales to have good internal reliability for all domains. Owners of cats living exclusively indoors reported higher scores on POI and PEC compared to indoor/outdoor cats. Owning both cats and dogs was correlated with lower scores on POI, and fewer perceived costs (i.e., PC) of cat ownership. Finally, behaviour problems, not being neutered, and lack of previous experience with cat ownership were associated with lower scores on PC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]