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Climate change is adversely affecting communities of the developing countries because their livelihoods rely mainly on climate-dependent activities. In Tunisia, farm households are facing several climate-driven risks including drought, which ends up with a decrease in their farm productivity and therefore threatens their livelihood subsistence. However, there is a knowledge gap on how household livelihoods are vulnerable and how this vulnerability varies among them. The main purpose of the paper was to assess the households’ livelihood vulnerability to climate change in Medenine province of South-East Tunisia using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI). Data were gathered using a monitoring system with 39 reference farms identified by a typology carried out with the data of 2185 farm households from the last survey of farm structures in Medenine-Tunisia. The typological approach identified four farm households’ types: T1: livestock farming with family labor, T2: livestock farming with waged labor, T3: plant production with family labor, and T4: plant production with waged labor. Using the LVI method, results suggest that T1 and T3 are more vulnerable, particularly about knowledge and skills, farm capital, finances, institutional aspects, social network, and water. The findings of the study could help policymakers in designing specific adaptation measures to reduce the household’s vulnerability. The government should give specific attention to T1 and T3 households through: (i) establishing a mechanism that distribute aids to the most affected households, (ii) sustaining the households’ livelihoods by improving water supply and encouraging crop diversification and seed production, and (iii) developing an early warning system for climate extremes.

The objective of this paper is to identify prospects for stakeholder cooperation for effective implementation of enhanced rangeland restoration techniques under different land tenure status in Tataouine Governorate of southern Tunisia, through the rest technique locally called “Gdel.” This technique consists of leaving a given rangeland at rest to reconstitute the plant cover. A stakeholder analysis was conducted using the MACTOR methodological framework to analyze stakeholders’ strategies and their balance of power in terms of rangeland management decisions, specifically regarding the implementation of resting, which involves a high level of collective action. Data collection was based on two focus group discussions with the nine main stakeholders involved directly and indirectly in Tunisian rangeland management. Stakeholders’ perceptions about resting are compared across private and collective land tenure systems. Findings show a wide diversity in stakeholder relationships, in terms of influences, dependencies, and balance of power, with differences between collective and private tenure systems. In private rangelands, equal levels of stakeholder influence and power lead to a much more stable and flexible rangeland restoration process, with more alliances and consensual objectives among almost all stakeholders. The situation in collective rangelands is very different because the majority of stakeholders have a weak influence in terms of management decisions, with fewer alliances and more conflictual objectives among them. Pathways for stakeholder cooperation and long-term empowerment are suggested for effective implementation of rangeland restoration techniques involving collective action.

The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) assumes that all capitals are complementary and that more capital assets would lead to greater adaptive capacity. However, the SLA neglects the interactions and transformations between different livelihood capitals. This paper suggests a methodological approach to understand how different capitals may be structured, transformed, and used to improve the farm households’ adaptive capacity to climatic stresses. Data for this study were gathered by means of a questionnaire survey during 2018 from 100 farm households representing the main farming systems of Medenine governorate, Southeast of Tunisia. The analyses were carried out using three tools following a stepwise approach. First, to understand the interactions that exist between the different capitals, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was carried out. Then, the adaptive capacity was calculated using the PCA results. Finally, using the Pearson's correlation index, the impact of livelihood assets on adaptive capacity was tested. The results demonstrated that households are trying to compensate for the lack of certain assets through interactions with others in order to improve their adaptive capacity. Moreover, human, natural and financial capital seem to better influence the adaptive capacity of farmers, while the impacts of physical and social capital are relatively less important. These results have improved our comprehension of the livelihood capital purpose for strengthening the existing approaches that enhance the adaptive capacity. Finally, this study has demonstrated that exploring the interactions between livelihood capitals is a first concern, which should be incorporated into adaptive capacity planning and policy development.

Water harvesting techniques (WHTs) are important climate change adaptation measures to better manage rainwater for domestic and agricultural purposes, but which WHT to plan where is subject to sustainability considerations. Moreover, suitability of different WHTs varies from one location to another, depending on physical and socio-economic conditions. This study aimed to identify suitable sites for WHTs taking into account stakeholders’ sustainability criteria. In a participatory assessment framework, Geographic Information Systems and the “Simple Multi-Attribute Rating Technique” were combined to generate suitability maps and to guide sustainable WHTs investments. Steps included the calculation of a sustainability index for a set of traditional and newly introduced WHTs from the perspective of two stakeholder groups, farmers and decision-makers, and its integration with layers of biophysical constraints. An application of the framework in the Oum Zessar watershed, southeast Tunisia, shows that traditional techniques are the most suitable and sustainable for farmers and fall within the highly suitable class in 76.4% of the total area, while decision-makers prefer innovative techniques that are highly suitable in 80.4% of the watershed. The framework offers a scalable transparent process for knowledge integration in support of WHT investment decisions that can be adapted to other dryland areas.

This paper presents a livelihood vulnerability assessment and compares the levels of exposure, sensitivity and adaptation to climate change of the local populations in mountains area and coastal plains in Tunisian arid regions. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change vulnerability index (LVI-IPCC) has been adapted and applied to assess this livelihood vulnerability, based on socio-economic surveys and semi-structured interviews with the local populations. Findings show that households in coastal plains are more vulnerable in terms of socio demographic profile, food security, social networks, access to water and climate variability. This territory is much more exposed to climate change, despite being slightly less sensitive. On the other hand, households in mountainous territory are more vulnerable in terms of livelihood strategies, land tenure and health, despite their adaptation capacity, which reduces their vulnerability to climate change. Based on this vulnerability assessment, this work suggests specific adaptation strategies and measures for livelihoods sustainability in each territory.

The objective of this study was to identify the different irrigators’ strategies and to analyze the economic profitability of irrigated production systems in relation to adaptations to the scarcity of groundwater resources in a context of climate change in the South east of Tunisian. Based on surveys of 190 irrigated farms, this research shows that eighty-five percent (85%) of respondents clearly perceive climate change in southeastern Tunisia. These changes result in a decrease and an increasing irregularity of the rains, a disruption of the winter season, a greater frequency of pockets of drought and the decrease of the piezometric level of the water tables. In response to these changes, irrigators have adopted adaptation strategies, the most common of which are: offensive strategy or “chasing”, defensive strategy and contractive strategy. These strategies include various adaptation measures such as annual cleaning and deepening of wells, the use of water saving, the change of the cropping system and the reduction of irrigated area. These readjustments for most of the measures adopted by the irrigators have an impact on the elements of their operating account. In addition, offensive and defensive strategies appear to be the most economically profitable types of adaptation at the 1% level. Knowledge of different adaptation strategies and their economic returns enables adaptation options to be identified that are both realistic in terms of implementation and ambitious in terms of their objectives, and help develop priorities for adaptation of water resources for irrigation.

Sustainable development is regarded today as a goal which has to be reached by all countries. Therefore cooperation for development is more than ever necessary to face the global challenges such as poverty, human health, food crisis etc. This work aims to study the regional disparity that may exist between provinces in the south of tunisia. To this end, a data analysis applied to a set of regional development indicators using the principal components analysis method (ACP) was conducted.

The objective of this paper is to analyse the olive oil value chain (OVC) in the Governorate of Medenine (south-east of Tunisia) and the relationships between its main operators for an effective involvement and better performance and resilience of olive sector. Based on semi structured interviews and participatory multi-stakeholders’ workshops, OVC has been analysed and described. MACTOR approach has been applied to establish linkages among chain operators and activities in a partnership approach. Innovative interventions were proposed to strengthen farmers’ organizations to increase profitability of OVC. Empirical findings suggest that public-private-civil society partnerships are essential for the development of pro-poor approaches for uncovering technological and institutional innovations which may involve more inclusive olive oil value chains. The underpinnings of our argument will be of interest and value to both development practitioners and the research community engaged within Tunisia, and the wider region more generally, on initiatives aimed at fostering effective, inclusive and contextually relevant processes for agricultural innovation. ---- , , ,.

Climate change is a worldwide environmental issue to all economic sectors, mainly the agricultural sector. Tunisia is one of the countries adversely affected by climate change because of its low adaptive capacity. Adapting to climate threat is the main goal of farmers, who are the primary stakeholders in agriculture, to increase the resilience of their farming systems. Based on a survey between March and May 2018 with 100 agricultural households from the governorate of Medenine, which belongs to Southeast Tunisia, this paper examined the main adaptive measures to climate change used by farmers, the factors influencing their choice of measures and the constraints to adaptation. To explore the factors affecting the choice of adaptive measures, this study employed a multinomial logit regression. Results showed that irrigation, crop diversification, integration of crop with livestock and shifting from farm to non-farm activities were the main adaptive measures implemented by farmers in the study area. Further, the multinomial logit model indicated that the factors influencing the choice of adaptive measures included household head age, access to extension services, household income, number of years of experience of the household head in agriculture, and the distance to the market. The results demonstrated also that adaptation to climate change was hindered by many factors such as constrained resources, lack of money, and water shortage. The findings of this research suggest the need for improving the access to extension services, to water, and to means of production to enhance the resilience of vulnerable agricultural households and to improve their wellbeing.

The oases of Northern Africa, rich and complex but also fragile, have lasted for centuries and thus demonstrated their longevity. Today, how can we position their future in a context of significant environmental and social change? In order to address the notions of viability and coviability, it is necessary to verify the study's systemic context. The hypothesis that an oasis system exists has thereby been tested and the analytical inferences discussed. It uses the systemic approach and relies on reasoning by compartmentalization which is useful in the case of complex systems. Through a dual compartment/system vision, it is possible to address the trajectory of the North African oases, presented here as territorial compartments, to discuss their systemic coherence and thus question their future. This work illustrates a generic approach in order to understand the society-environment relationship. It provides the suitable systemic level for governance targeting systemic viability and coviability.

International audience; La lutte contre la désertification est une priorité, notamment dans les pays du Sud où vivent 75% de l'humanité et où les trois quarts de la population travaillent dans le secteur agricole. À partir d'une réflexion menée sur la caractérisation et spatialisation des pratiques (agricoles) et des ressources naturelles en interaction sur un espace donné, l'article décrit une chaîne de traitements thématiques pour modéliser des unités de paysages ruraux et les causes et intensité du risque de désertification afférents, ainsi que la plateforme logicielle géomatique qui la met en oeuvre. Via une interface utilisateur accompagnée d'une aide documentée, le logiciel SIEL permet le paramétrage et l'exécution de la chaîne de traitements. Les résultats obtenus sur des exemples illustratifs dans plusieurs observatoires circum-sahariens sont présentés. Ils ouvrent la voie aux discussions sur les perspectives et potentialités du SIEL dans les observatoires en appui à l'aide à la décision pour la lutte contre la désertification.

Soil degradation and desertification processes in the Mediterranean basin reflect the interplay between environmental and socioeconomic drivers. An approach to evaluate comparatively the multiple relationships between biophysical variables and socioeconomic factors is illustrated in the present study using the data collected from 586 field sites located in five Mediterranean areas (Spain, Greece, Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco). A total of 47 variables were chosen to illustrate land-use, farm characteristics, population pressure, tourism development, rainfall regime, water availability, soil properties and vegetation cover, among others. A data mining approach incorporating non-parametric inference, principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering was developed to identify candidate syndromes of soil degradation and desertification risk. While field sites in the same study area showed a substantial similarity, the multivariate relationship among variables diverged among study areas. Data mining techniques proved to be a practical tool to identify spatial determinants of soil degradation and desertification risk. Our findings identify the contrasting spatial patterns for biophysical and socioeconomic variables, in turn associated with different responses to land degradation.

Despite broad interest in use of water harvesting techniques (WHTs) to reduce pressure on natural resources in arid zones, few ex post assessments are available on how WHTs impact livelihood sustainability. This paper assesses the impact of WHTs on the livelihood conditions of inhabitants in the Oum Zessar watershed in south-east Tunisia. We used an integrated impact assessment (IIA) framework incorporating extended cost–benefit analysis (ECBA) and the sustainable livelihoods approach (SLA). The former internalizes environmental impacts while the latter enables assessment of the contributions of WHTs to rural livelihoods in the watershed. We began by using ECBA to estimate the profitability of investments in WHTs. We then scaled up our impact perspective from the local level to the watershed level using SLA based on survey data from beneficiary households upstream, midstream and downstream. Our goal was to better understand and evaluate changes in livelihoods and associated environmental effects. We focused on the links between cost–benefit of WHTs and sustainable livelihoods, looking in particular at the capitals that connect the two. Our ECBA results suggest that WHT techniques did benefit the local population at both the private and the social level (IRR > 20%; NPV > 2000 TD/ha). Sensitivity analysis confirmed this result. SLA findings point to a central role of social capital in promoting sustainable livelihoods, followed by physical capital enhanced by WHTs construction, especially in the upstream and downstream segments of the watershed. Recommendations were derived from these outcomes for more integrated watershed management policy.

This paper applies multiple analytical and empirical methods to evaluate the sustainability impacts of climate change and prospective adaptation measures based on water harvesting techniques (WHTs) at the regional level. We developed a sustainability composite index (SCI) for an arid zone in Tunisia, specifically the south-eastern Province of Medenine. To quantify the SCI, a static computable general equilibrium model (CGE) was adapted to the region. To provide a database for the CGE model, we built a regional social accounting matrix (RSAM). A bottom-up approach was applied to build a regional supply and use matrix for the agricultural sector incorporating natural resources (land and water) as intermediate inputs. Our regional SAM included ten production factors, 18 production sectors producing 22 goods and services, two household types (urban and rural), one representative enterprise, two public sectors (central and regional administration), taxes accounts, two capital accounts (savings/investment and changes in stocks), the rest of the world and the rest of the country. We used the RSAM to calculate the regional GDP. Two simulations were run, focused on the 2030 time horizon from the baseline year of 2006: (i) declining natural capital due to the effects of climate change and (ii) implementation of a regional climate change adaptation strategy based on water harvesting technologies (WHTs). Scenario identification drew on previous research and was performed in close collaboration with regional stakeholders. Based on the outputs of the CGE model, the impacts of the two scenarios on the main regional economic indicators were analysed. Using multi-criteria analysis (MCA), we calculated an aggregated SCI for regional development. Results suggest that implementation of the regional climate change adaptation strategy would have positive impacts, but would be insufficient to maintain the SCI at its current level.

Developper des modeles capables de fournir des indicateurs integrant des dimensions socio-economiques et environnementales dans leur diversite spatiale et temporelle, traitant de phenomenes a l’echelle locale, et mobilisables dans des systemes d’aide a la decision, reste un challenge d’actualite pour comprendre, spatialiser, suivre, evaluer et anticiper les dynamiques complexes de la desertification. Cet article presente la demarche modelisatrice imaginee, et la plateforme logicielle prototype intitulee « systeme d’information pour le suivi operationnel de la desertification a l’echelle locale » (SIELO) pour repondre a cet enjeu scientifique. Ce systeme tente de creer le lien entre : i) des indicateurs spatialises de risque de desertification prenant en compte la complexite systemique de la desertification ; et ii) le Land Cover Change observe. Le premier type de donnees est issu de modeles systemiques preexistants dans le SIEL. Le second type de donnees est extrait d’images satellites acquises selon des pas de temps reguliers. La demarche s’appuie sur des approches de spatialisation des connaissances, qui mobilise le « paysage » notamment. Dans cet article, nous mettons l’accent sur la description de la demarche proposee pour etablir ce lien, et sur les specificites qui la mettent en capacite d’alimenter un suivi operationnel de la desertification dans le cadre d’observatoires a l’echelle locale. Nous illustrons la faisabilite et l’operationnalite de sa mise en œuvre avec une premiere application a une zone aride tunisienne via un logiciel prototype developpe.

For stimulating sustainable development in developing countries, land use patterns and land use changes are considered critical, and therefore effective and efficient land use policies are needed. In this paper we present a methodological framework that has been developed in a joint European and developing countries project (LUPIS – Land Use Policies and Sustainable Development in Developing Countries), to assess the impact of land use policies on sustainable development in developing countries. An illustrative application is presented for a case study in China, where water pollution due to agriculture in Taihu Basin is a major problem. We argue that an integrated assessment is required, considering multiple drivers and indicators that determine the objectives and constraints of the stakeholders involved. Therefore, the sustainability impact assessment (SIA) is based on the concept of Land Use Functions (LUFs), and impacts on these LUFs are discussed with stakeholders based on a multi-criteria analysis. LUFs comprise economic, environmental and social indicators relevant for stakeholders at multiple scales. Instead of focusing only on the indicators that determine the problem (e.g., nutrient leaching in the Chinese case study), we take a broader perspective (considering also social, economic and institutional objectives and constraints), such that feasible policy options can be recommended. Stakeholders have a large role in discussing the selection of indicators and policies (pre-modelling), evaluating the impacts on indicators (modelling), and the weighing of indicators and LUFs (post-modelling). For the assessment of impacts on indicators (modelling), quantitative and qualitative approaches are combined. We present and discuss an impact assessment of policy options in Taihu Basin, for the current situation and towards 2015. The methodological framework as presented here proved to be useful to guide a sustainability impact assessment in China and six other case study regions.

This study investigates the relationship between fine resolution, local-scale biophysical and socioeconomic contexts within which land degradation occurs, and the human responses to it. The research draws on experimental data collected under different territorial and socioeconomic conditions at 586 field sites in five Mediterranean countries (Spain, Greece, Turkey, Tunisia and Morocco). We assess the level of desertification risk under various land management practices (terracing, grazing control, prevention of wildland fires, soil erosion control measures, soil water conservation measures, sustainable farming practices, land protection measures and financial subsidies) taken as possible responses to land degradation. A data mining approach, incorporating principal component analysis, non-parametric correlations, multiple regression and canonical analysis, was developed to identify the spatial relationship between land management conditions, the socioeconomic and environmental context (described using 40 biophysical and socioeconomic indicators) and desertification risk. Our analysis identified a number of distinct relationships between the level of desertification experienced and the underlying socioeconomic context, suggesting that the effectiveness of responses to land degradation is strictly dependent on the local biophysical and socioeconomic context. Assessing the latent relationship between land management practices and the biophysical/socioeconomic attributes characterizing areas exposed to different levels of desertification risk proved to be an indirect measure of the effectiveness of field actions contrasting land degradation.

In the arid regions of Tunisia, considerable investments are being made to maintain the old water harvesting techniques and introduce new ones to capture the scarce amount of rainwater (100 mm to 230 mm annually) for agricultural and domestic purposes. However, no detailed assessment of the multiple effects and the costs and benefits of these techniques have been made so far. This paper summarizes the results of an in depth investigation of the multiple impacts (runoff mobilization, ground water recharge, agro-socio-economic impacts) of the water harvesting works undertaken in the watershed of oued Oum Zessar (southeastern Tunisia). The importance of interdisciplinary and integrated approaches was revealed through this detailed impact assessment and economic evaluation. In fact, the profitability of the water harvesting works depends largely on the criteria chosen. However, further refinements are needed to better include all possible impacts (positive and negative) that occur as a result of the installation of the water harvesting structures.

The need of useful information for decision-makers to fight against desertification in Tunisian dry zones leads to conceive assessing and monitoring systems that can supply synthetic indicators. These latter should integrate socioeconomic and environmental dimensions with their spatial and temporal diversity at the local scale. This paper proposes an example of information system entitled SIELO (information system for operational desertification monitoring at the local scale). This system attempts to create the link between i) spatialized indicators of desertification risks, built in connection with the systematic complexity of desertification and ii) observed Land Use/ Land Cover (LU/LC) Change. The first type of data arises from pre-existing environmental model: LEIS model (Local Environmental Information System). The second type of data is extracted from satellite images acquired according to regular time steps. The proposed approach is based also on the spatializing of knowledge, via the ‘‘landscape’’ tool in particular. We illustrate the feasibility and the operational effectiveness of a developed software prototype (SIELO v1.0) with an initial application in a Tunisian dry zone. This system showed that it has the capacity to feed an operational monitoring of desertification according to the state of LU/LC directly observed or measured in several dates. Then, it can be useful for the decision-makers in their programs of fighting against desertification, but also to manage uncertainties in southeastern Tunisia, especially climate variability and climate change.

The main challenges of Tunisian arid areas is better understand desertification and better adapt decisions to uncertainties that arise in complex interactions between the socio-economic and biophysical dynamics at different spatial and temporal scales. This understanding is increasingly necessary to better target actions and improve coping strategies. The objective of this work is to assess the vulnerability of natural resources and the risk of desertification at the local scale, in a case study (Oum Zessar watershed) located in the south-east of Tunisia. The assessment is carried out through an analysis of different human and biophysical causes and driving forces, such as natural resources uses and climate change. It is based on geographical (landscape), integrated (socio-economy, biophysics) and multi-actors (research-decision) approaches, associated with reproducible methods and models to assess the risk of desertification, and to better target future combating actions. The work led to the development of desertification risk indexes (based on spatial integration of biophysical and socio-economic functioning through modeling), facing several scenarios of climate change and human pressure. It shows that the same level of risk in one place or another may have differentiated causes, which could help public policy in their fighting against desertification.

The abandonment of land is a global problem with environmental and socioeconomic implications. An approach to assess the relationship between land abandonment and a large set of indicators was illustrated in the present study by using data collected in the framework of the European Union DESIRE research project from 808 field sites located in 10 study sites in the Mediterranean region, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia. A total of 48 indicators provided information for biophysical conditions and socioeconomic characteristics measured at the plot level. The selected indicators refer to farm characteristics (family status, land tenure, present and previous types of land-use, soil depth, slope gradient, tillage operations) and to site-specific characteristics including annual rainfall, rainfall seasonality and water availability. Classes were designated for each indicator and a sensitivity score was assigned to each class based on existing research or empirically assessing the importance of each indicator to the land abandonment issue. Questionnaires for each process of land degradation were prepared and data were collected at field site level in collaboration with land users. Based on correlation statistics and multivariate analyses more than ten indicators out of 48 resulted as significant in affecting land abandonment in the studied field sites. Among them, the most important were rainfall seasonality, elderly index, land fragmentation, farm size, selected soil properties, and the level of policy implementation. Results contribute to the development of appropriate tools for assessing the effectiveness of land management practices for contrasting land abandonment.

Population and Environment Relationships in the Tunisian Desert Population growth, diffusion of growth models and the end of cultural and social autarky have shaken traditional equilibria, particularly in recently-settled nomad populations. In the oasis of El Faouar, in the Tunisian desert, the degradation of pastures and the increased scarcity of vegetation have deeply shattered the traditions of local pastoralists; through the impulse of the state, they have turned to irrigated agriculture. The theme developed in this article is that this process of change and its impact on the environment is linked to the ability of households to maintain their social and family reproduction on renewed bases. This ability, which changes in the various groups, can have different aspects., La croissance démographique, la diffusion de modèles de croissance associés à de nouvelles techniques de production et la fin de l'autarcie culturelle et sociale ont ébranlé les équilibres traditionnels, en particulier dans les sociétés nomades récemment sédentarisées. Dans l'oasis d'El Faouar, en zone saharienne tunisienne, la dégradation des parcours et la raréfaction du couvert végétal ont bouleversé les traditions pastorales des populations locales qui se sont tournées vers l'agriculture irriguée sous l'impulsion de l'Etat. Ces transformations ne touchent pas les ménages de la même manière; des pratiques d'usage du milieu naturel persistent en effet qui aggravent le processus de désertification. L'idée développée dans l'article est que ces processus de transformation et leur impact sur l'environnement sont liés à la capacité des ménages à assurer leur reproduction aussi bien sociale que familiale sur des bases renouvelées. Cette capacité, variable selon le groupe social, peut prendre des caractères antagonistes: de la réponse traditionnelle et identitaire à la réponse entrepreneuriale., Picouët Michel, Sghaier Mongi, Zaafouri Mohammed S. Relation population-environnement en Tunisie désertique. In: Espace, populations, sociétés, 1998-1. Populations et environnement dans le monde aride - Populations and the Environment in Arid Countries. pp. 53-65.

International audience; An approach to derive relationships for defining land degradation and desertification risk and developing appropriate tools for assessing the effectiveness of the various land management practices using indicators is presented in the present paper. In order to investigate which indicators are most effective in assessing the level of desertification risk, a total of 70 candidate indicators was selected providing information for the biophysical environment , socioeconomic conditions, and land management characteristics. The indicators were defined in 1,672 field sites located in 17 study areas in the Mediterranean region, Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Based on an existing geo-referenced database, classes were designated for each indicator and a sensitivity score todesertification was assigned to each class based on existing research. The obtained data were analyzed for the various processes of land degradation at farm level. The derived methodology was assessed using independent indicators, such as the measured soil erosion rate, and the organic matter content of the soil. Based on regression analyses, the collected indicator set can be reduced to a number of effective indicators ranging from 8 to 17 in the various processes of land degradation. Among the most important indicators identified as affecting land degradation and desertification risk were rain seasonality, slope gradient,plant cover, rate of land abandonment, land-use intensity, and the level of policy implementation.

The need to enhance sustainable development of land use is more urgent than ever; specifically in developing countries where poverty and land degradation are often interlinked. To promote a common understanding of land use problems by experts, stakeholders and decision makers, it is essential to understand the system characteristics, including the complex feedbacks between drivers and impacts. To enhance sustainable development, appropriate policies need to be identified. In this paper, we analysed and compared seven case studies in Kenya, Mali, Tunisia, China, India, Indonesia and Brazil, representing different biophysical and socio-economic conditions and challenges. We analysed Driver Pressure State Impact Response (DPSIR) story lines of the land use problems, policy priorities and value trade-offs as identified by stakeholders and experts in National Policy Forums. Important drivers of land use change impacting main land use problems among the case studies were economic growth, technological development, immigration and agricultural intensification, in addition to existing policies. Of the latter the most important were related to domestic support through various forms of subsidies or access to credit, land tenure polices and liberalization policies. In the policy prioritization, the value trade-offs made by the National Policy Forums emphasize the environment rather than increased economic production. It is recognized that the environment needs to be improved to maintain and improve economic production in the long term, both in agriculture and in other sectors.

The impact of land use changes on sustainable development is of increasing interest in many regions of the world. This study aimed to test the transferability of the Framework for Participatory Impact Assessment (FoPIA), which was originally developed in the European context, to developing countries, in which lack of data often prevents the use of data-driven impact assessment methods. The core aspect of FoPIA is the stakeholder-based assessment of alternative land use scenarios. Scenario impacts on regional sustainability are assessed by using a set of nine regional land use functions (LUFs), which equally cover the economic, social and environmental dimensions of sustainability. The cases analysed in this study include (1) the alternative spatial planning policies around the Merapi volcano and surrounding areas of Yogyakarta City, Indonesia; (2) the large-scale afforestation of agricultural areas to reduce soil erosion in Guyuan, China; (3) the expansion of soil and water conservation measures in the Oum Zessar watershed, Tunisia; (4) the agricultural intensification and the potential for organic agriculture in Bijapur, India; and (5) the land degradation and land conflicts resulting from land division and privatisation in Narok, Kenya. All five regions are characterised by population growth, partially combined with considerable economic development, environmental degradation problems and social conflicts. Implications of the regional scenario impacts as well as methodological aspects are discussed. Overall, FoPIA proved to be a useful tool for diagnosing regional human-environment interactions and for supporting the communication and social learning process among different stakeholder groups.

Environmental threats and progressive degradation of natural resources are considered critical impediments to sustainable development. This paper reports on a participatory impact assessment of alternative soil and water conservation (SWC) scenarios in the Oum Zessar watershed, Tunisia. The first objective was to assess the impact of three SWC scenarios on key social, economic and environmental land use functions. The second objective was to test and evaluate the applicability of the 'Framework for Participatory Impact Assessment (FoPIA)' for assessing scenario impacts in the context of a developing country, in this case Tunisia. The assessed scenarios included: the originally planned SWC policy implementation at 85 % coverage of arable land of the watershed, the current implementation (70 %), and a hypothetical expansion of SWC measures to the entire watershed (100 %). Our results suggest that implementation of the SWC policy at 100 % coverage of arable land achieves the maximum socioeconomic benefit. However, if stakeholders' preferences regarding land use functions are taken into account, and considering the fact that the implementation of SWC measures also implies some negative changes to traditional landscapes and the natural system, SWC implementation at 85 % coverage of arable land might be preferable. The FoPIA approved to be a useful tool for conducting a holistic sustainability impact assessment of SWC scenarios and for studying the most intriguing sustainability problems while providing possible recommendations towards sustainable development. We conclude that participatory impact assessment contributes to an enhanced regional understanding of key linkages between policy effects and sustainable development, which provides the foundation for improved policy decision making.

L'objectif de cet article est d'évaluer l'impact de la politique de tarification de l'eau d'irrigation sur la durabilité des systèmes de production irrigués en Tunisie à travers une panoplie d'indicateurs. La modélisation bioéconomique couplant le modèle biophysique CropSyst (Cropping System model) et le modèle économique de ferme FSSIM " Farming System SIMulator " a été mobilisée dans ce travail et appliquée à quatre exploitations types représentatives de l'agriculture irriguée dans le bassin versant d'Oum Zessar, situé au sud-est de la Tunisie. Les principaux résultats dégagés de cette étude montrent : la forte dépendance de la durabilité de différents systèmes de production à l'égard de la politique de tarification de l'eau ; et la grande sensibilité des exploitations des périmètres privés à l'évolution progressive des coûts de pompage de l'eau par rapport aux exploitations des périmètres publics. Ces dernières arrivent, en effet, à amortir l'impact de la tarification grâce à leur capacité d'adaptation. Les systèmes de production autour des puits de surface paraissent plus fragiles et non durables et l'orientation vers la gestion collective de l'eau semble être une solution adéquate pour maintenir l'activité en irrigué et assurer la durabilité des ressources en eau dans ces zones arides.

This paper aims to launch a debate as whether and how provisions with regard to the responsibility of present polluters for future damage should be considered within the applicable regulations. The examination focuses on the European legal framework for climate protection, and gives some specific attention to the coal fired electricity generating installations. The structure is as follows: section 2 gives a general introduction into such fossil fuel fired electricity generation, and section 3 describes present regulatory approaches to this industry. Section 4 will then elaborate on the possibility of introducing provisions into the regulatory regime that make polluters responsible for future damage. In particular the possibility of action on the Member State level will be discussed, although the debate is very explorative and other options, like notably an improvement of the EU ETS itself, should get further attention. Section 5 concludes the paper with some first observations.

The former agro-pastoral system which prevailed in the Tunisian Sahara had developed a pastoral resource management which preserved the rather fragile ecological equilibrium. Nowadays in the Tunisian Sahara nearly all former nomads are settled around the villages and irrigated areas which were created with the official aim of utilizing the Sahara. The sedentarization of the nomads has provoked two phenomena: a concentration and an increased density of population around the newly founded oases on the one hand and a depopulation of the more remote steppes on the other hand. Actually this demographic disequilibrium threatens the ecological equilibrium which existed in the past. It has caused a multiplication of the stocking of the actual pastures and increases the risk of degradation of the peripheral and easily accessible grazing-grounds. It exercises an excessive pressure on the environment through the intensive human activities and the satisfaction of new needs. This pressure manifests itself in the enlargement of the circles of degradation around the oases and the intensification of aeolian dynamics. A regeneration of the former organically developed eco-system is impossible without conscious reference into the local traditions and without consideration of the complexity of interelationship of the various factors.

Ce rapport de recherche propose une analyse croisée des processus d'émergence des territoires ruraux dans les pays du pourtour méditerranéen. La contribution d'équipes de recherche de 10 pays permet une analyse originale qui mobilise des approches nationales et des études de terrain issues de l'ensemble de ces pays. Les questions des formes de gouvernance, de décentralisation ou encore les trajectoires de développement sont mises en perspective.

Le Sud-Est tunisien represente un espace de transition entre le milieu mediterraneen et le Sahara. Un climat aride, marque par une pluviometrie faible et variable, et des ressources souterraines limitees tant en volume qu’en qualite, font de la ressource en eau un element essentiel du developpement economique et social de cet espace. Devant la modestie du potentiel hydraulique de cette region, les autorites tunisiennes ont ete amenees a effectuer des les annees 1960 des choix dans l’allocation des ressources en vue de securiser l’approvisionnement des secteurs consideres comme prioritaires, soit la consommation domestique des zones urbaines, le tourisme, et l’industrie dans une moindre mesure. Jusqu’aux annees 1990, le renforcement des capacites en forage hydraulique et la construction d’un systeme regional d’adduction d’eau representaient les principaux mecanismes destines a reduire les disparites geographiques et combler le deficit en eau de la bordure littorale. Depuis une quinzaine d’annees, les politiques de l’eau en Tunisie, comme dans la majeure partie du Monde, privilegient une approche strategique basee sur une inflexion de la croissance de la demande, la recherche d’une valorisation maximale du metre cube et la mobilisation optimale de l’eau avec des formes d’appoint liees au recours aux ressources non conventionnelles. Les efforts

In the framework of the implementation of the national action plan (NAP) as part of the UNCCD, a network of observatories for the assessment and monitoring of desertification has been established, covering the main agro-ecological zones of Tunisia. Menzel Habib represents one of the main observatories located in a typical arid zone threatened by desertification. This site is also part of the ROSELT3/OSS4 network and the arid zones observatory implemented by IRA within the framework of the national monitoring system of desertification coordinated by the national focal point of the UNCCD. It is in this framework that the GIS-based model LEIS (Local Environmental Information System) (in French known as SIEL) developed by the ROSELT team in Montpellier (Roselt/OSS, DS3, 2004) was applied to this observatory. The data used were issued from achieved and on-going multidisciplinary monitoring of the observatory covering the biophysical (soil, water, climate, vegetation) and the agro-socio-economic (population, agricul ture and pasture practices, land uses, etc.) aspects. Three types of information were used: remotely sensed data (satellite images), field measurements (vegetation bio-mass, yields, GPS, etc.), and socio-economic surveys (households, income, activi ties, etc.). Multiple scenarios have been conducted to assess the impact of changing one or many parameters (population, livestock, etc.). In fact, the final objective of the model is to place at the disposal of the various actors of development, research ers and technicians, a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) for planning and monitoring in plans to combat desertification and natural resources management in the dry areas.