Search

Invasive vectors can induce dramatic changes in disease epidemiology. While viral emergence following geographical range expansion of a vector is well known, the influence a vector can have at the level of the host's pathobiome is less well understood. Taking advantage of the formerly heterogeneous spatial distribution of the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor that acts as potent virus vector among honeybees Apis mellifera , we investigated the impact of its recent global spread on the viral community of honeybees in a retrospective study of historical samples. We hypothesized that the vector has had an effect on the epidemiology of several bee viruses, potentially altering their transmissibility and/or virulence, and consequently their prevalence, abundance, or both. To test this, we quantified the prevalence and loads of 14 viruses from honeybee samples collected in mite-free and mite-infested populations in four independent geographical regions. The presence of the mite dramatically increased the prevalence and load of deformed wing virus, a cause of unsustainably high colony losses. In addition, several other viruses became more prevalent or were found at higher load in mite-infested areas, including viruses not known to be actively varroa-transmitted, but which may increase opportunistically in varroa-parasitized bees., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (© 2024 The Authors.)

The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is an invasive species of Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) and the largest pathogenic threat to their health world-wide. Its successful invasion and expansion is related to its ability to exploit the worker brood for reproduction, which results in an exponential population growth rate in the new host. With invasion of the mite, wild honeybee populations have been nearly eradicated from Europe and North America, and the survival of managed honeybee populations relies on mite population control treatments. However, there are a few documented honeybee populations surviving extended periods without control treatments due to adapted host traits that directly impact Varroa mite fitness. The aim of this study was to investigate if Varroa mite reproductive success was affected by traits of adult bee behaviours or by traits of the worker brood, in three mite-resistant honey bee populations from Sweden, France and Norway. The mite's reproductive success was measured and compared in broods that were either exposed to, or excluded from, adult bee access. Mite-resistant bee populations were also compared with a local mite-susceptible population, as a control group. Our results show that mite reproductive success rates and mite fecundity in the three mite-resistant populations were significantly different from the control population, with the French and Swedish populations having significantly lower reproductive rates than the Norwegian population. When comparing mite reproduction in exposed or excluded brood treatments, no differences were observed, regardless of population. This result clearly demonstrates that Varroa mite reproductive success can be suppressed by traits of the brood, independent of adult worker bees., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Chemical communication is a widely used mode of communication for social insects and has been demonstrated to be involved in many behaviours and physiological processes such as reproduction, nutrition or the fight against parasites and pathogens. In the honey bee, Apis mellifera, the release of chemical compounds by the brood plays a role in worker behaviour, physiology, and foraging activities and colony health as a whole. Several compounds have already been described as brood pheromones, such as components of the brood ester pheromone and (E)-β-ocimene. Several other compounds originating from diseased or varroa-infested brood cells have been described as triggering the hygienic behaviour of workers. So far, studies of brood emissions have focused on specific stages of development and little is known about the emission of volatile organic compounds by the brood. In this study, we investigate the semiochemical profile of worker honey bee brood during its whole developmental cycle, from egg to emergence, with a specific focus on volatile organic compounds. We describe variation in emissions of thirty-two volatile organic compounds between brood stages. We highlight candidate compounds that are particularly abundant in specific stages and discuss their potential biological significance., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Noël et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Eusocial insects are crucial to many ecosystems, and particularly the honeybee (Apis mellifera). One approach to facilitate their study in molecular genetics, is to consider whole-colony genotyping by combining DNA of multiple individuals in a single pool sequencing experiment. Cheap and fast, this technique comes with the drawback of producing data requiring dedicated methods to be fully exploited. Despite this limitation, pool sequencing data have been shown to be informative and cost-effective when working on random mating populations. Here, we present new statistical methods for exploiting pool sequencing of eusocial colonies in order to reconstruct the genotypes of the queen of such colony. This leverages the possibility to monitor genetic diversity, perform genomic-based studies or implement selective breeding. Using simulations and honeybee real data, we show that the new methods allow for a fast and accurate estimation of the queen's genetic ancestry, with correlations of about 0.9 to that obtained from individual genotyping. Also, it allows for an accurate reconstruction of the queen genotypes, with about 2% genotyping error. We further validate these inferences using experimental data on colonies with both pool sequencing and individual genotyping of drones. In brief, in this study we present statistical models to accurately estimate the genetic ancestry and reconstruct the genotypes of the queen from pool sequencing data from workers of an eusocial colony. Such information allows to exploit pool sequencing for traditional population genetics analyses, association studies and for selective breeding. While validated in Apis mellifera, these methods are applicable to other eusocial hymenopterans., (© 2022 The Authors. Molecular Ecology Resources published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Invasive parasites are major threats to biodiversity. The honey bee ectoparasite, Varroa destructor, has shifted host and spread almost globally several decades ago. This pest is generally considered to be the main global threat to Western honey bees, Apis mellifera, although the damages it causes are not equivalent in all its new host's populations. Due to the high virulence of this parasite and the viruses it vectors, beekeepers generally rely on acaricide treatments to keep their colonies alive. However, some populations of A. mellifera can survive without anthropogenic mite control, through the expression of diverse resistance and tolerance traits. Such surviving colonies are currently found throughout the globe, with the biggest populations being found in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Recently, genetic differences between mite populations infesting surviving and treated A. mellifera colonies in Europe were found, suggesting that adaptations of honey bees drive mite evolution. Yet, the prevalence of such co-evolutionary adaptations in other invasive populations of V. destructor remain unknown. Using the previous data from Europe and novel genetic data from V. destructor populations in South America and Africa, we here investigated whether mites display signs of adaptations to different host populations of diverse origins and undergoing differing management. Our results show that, contrary to the differences previously documented in Europe, mites infesting treated and untreated honey bee populations in Africa and South America are genetically similar. However, strong levels of genetic differentiation were found when comparing mites across continents, suggesting ongoing allopatric speciation despite a recent spread from genetically homogenous lineages. This study provides novel insights into the co-evolution of V. destructor and A. mellifera, and confirms that these species are ideal to investigate coevolution in newly established host-parasite systems., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The parasitic Varroa destructor is considered a major pathogenic threat to honey bees and to beekeeping. Without regular treatment against this mite, honey bee colonies can collapse within a 2-3-year period in temperate climates. Beyond this dramatic scenario, Varroa induces reductions in colony performance, which can have significant economic impacts for beekeepers. Unfortunately, until now, it has not been possible to predict the summer Varroa population size from its initial load in early spring. Here, we present models that use the Varroa load observed in the spring to predict the Varroa load one or three months later by using easily and quickly measurable data: phoretic Varroa load and capped brood cell numbers. Built on 1030 commercial colonies located in three regions in the south of France and sampled over a three-year period, these predictive models are tools designed to help professional beekeepers' decision making regarding treatments against Varroa. Using these models, beekeepers will either be able to evaluate the risks and benefits of treating against Varroa or to anticipate the reduction in colony performance due to the mite during the beekeeping season.

Invasive species events related to globalization are increasing, resulting in parasitic outbreaks. Understanding of host defense mechanisms is needed to predict and mitigate against the consequences of parasite invasion. Using the honey bee Apis mellifera and the mite Varroa destructor, as a host-parasite model, we provide a comprehensive study of a mechanism of parasite detection that triggers a behavioral defense associated with social immunity. Six Varroa-parasitization-specific (VPS) compounds are identified that (1) trigger Varroa-sensitive hygiene (VSH, bees' key defense against Varroa sp.), (2) enable the selective recognition of a parasitized brood and (3) induce responses that mimic intrinsic VSH activity in bee colonies. We also show that individuals engaged in VSH exhibit a unique ability to discriminate VPS compounds from healthy brood signals. These findings enhance our understanding of a critical mechanism of host defense against parasites, and have the potential to apply the integration of pest management in the beekeeping sector.

Cell recapping is a behavioural trait of honeybees (Apis mellifera) where cells with developing pupae are uncapped, inspected, and then recapped, without removing the pupae. The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor, unarguably the most destructive pest in apiculture world-wide, invades the cells of developing pupae to feed and reproduce. Honeybees that target mite infested cells with this behaviour may disrupt the reproductive cycle of the mite. Hence, cell recapping has been associated with colony-level declines in mite reproduction. In this study we compared the colony-level efficacy of cell recapping (how often infested cells are recapped) to the average mite fecundity in A. mellifera. Our study populations, known to be adapted to V. destructor, were from Avignon, France, Gotland, Sweden, and Oslo, Norway, and were compared to geographically similar, treated control colonies. The results show that colonies with a higher recapping efficacy also have a lower average mite reproductive success. This pattern was likely driven by the adapted populations as they had the largest proportion of highly-targeted cell recapping. The consistent presence of this trait in mite-resistant and mite-susceptible colonies with varying degrees of expression may make it a good proxy trait for selective breeding on a large scale.

Developing resistance to the varroa mite in honey bees is a major goal for apicultural science and practice, the development of selection strategies and the availability of resistant stock. Here we present an extended literature review and survey of resistant populations and selection programs in the EU and elsewhere, including expert interviews. We illustrate the practical experiences of scientists, beekeepers, and breeders in search of resistant bees. We describe numerous resistant populations surviving without acaricide treatments, most of which developed under natural infestation pressure. Their common characteristics: reduced brood development; limited mite population growth; and low mite reproduction, may cause conflict with the interests of commercial beekeeping. Since environmental factors affect varroa mite resistance, particular honey bee strains must be evaluated under different local conditions and colony management. The resistance traits of grooming, hygienic behavior and mite reproduction, together with simple testing of mite population development and colony survival, are significant in recent selection programs. Advanced breeding techniques and genetic and physiological selection tools will be essential in the future. Despite huge demand, there is no well-established market for resistant stock in Europe. Moreover, reliable experience or experimental evidence regarding the resistance of stocks under different environmental and management conditions is still lacking.

In the fight against the Varroa destructor mite, selective breeding of honey bee ( Apis mellifera L.) populations that are resistant to the parasitic mite stands as a sustainable solution. Selection initiatives indicate that using the suppressed mite reproduction (SMR) trait as a selection criterion is a suitable tool to breed such resistant bee populations. We conducted a large European experiment to evaluate the SMR trait in different populations of honey bees spread over 13 different countries, and representing different honey bee genotypes with their local mite parasites. The first goal was to standardize and validate the SMR evaluation method, and then to compare the SMR trait between the different populations. Simulation results indicate that it is necessary to examine at least 35 single-infested cells to reliably estimate the SMR score of any given colony. Several colonies from our dataset display high SMR scores indicating that this trait is present within the European honey bee populations. The trait is highly variable between colonies and some countries, but no major differences could be identified between countries for a given genotype, or between genotypes in different countries. This study shows the potential to increase selective breeding efforts of V. destructor resistant populations.

In the current context of worldwide honey bee colony losses, among which the varroa mite plays a major role, the hope to improve honey bee health lies in part in the breeding of varroa resistant colonies. To do so, methods used to evaluate varroa resistance need better understanding. Repeatability and correlations between traits such as mite non-reproduction (MNR), varroa sensitive hygiene (VSH), and hygienic behavior are poorly known, due to practical limitations and to their underlying complexity. We investigate (i) the variability, (ii) the repeatability of the MNR score, and (iii) its correlation with other resistance traits. To reduce the inherent variability of MNR scores, we propose to apply an empirical Bayes correction. In the short-term (ten days), MNR had a modest repeatability of 0.4, whereas in the long-term (a month), it had a low repeatability of 0.2, similar to other resistance traits. Within our dataset, there was no correlation between MNR and VSH. Although MNR is amongst the most popular varroa resistance estimates in field studies, its underlying complex mechanism is not fully understood. Its lack of correlation with better described resistance traits and low repeatability suggest that MNR needs to be interpreted cautiously, especially when used for selection.

Since its migration from the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) to the European honey bee (Apis mellifera), the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor has emerged as a major issue for beekeeping worldwide. Due to a short history of coevolution, the host-parasite relationship between A. mellifera and V. destructor is unbalanced, with honey bees suffering infestation effects at the individual, colony and population levels. Several control solutions have been developed to tackle the colony and production losses due to Varroa, but the burden caused by the mite in combination with other biotic and abiotic factors continues to increase, weakening the beekeeping industry. In this synthetic review, we highlight the main advances made between 2015 and 2020 on V. destructor biology and its impact on the health of the honey bee, A. mellifera. We also describe the main control solutions that are currently available to fight the mite and place a special focus on new methodological developments, which point to integrated pest management strategies for the control of Varroa in honey bee colonies., (© 2020 The Author(s).)

The parasitic mite, Varroa destructor, has shaken the beekeeping and pollination industries since its spread from its native host, the Asian honey bee (Apis cerana), to the naïve European honey bee (Apis mellifera) used commercially for pollination and honey production around the globe. Varroa is the greatest threat to honey bee health. Worrying observations include increasing acaricide resistance in the varroa population and sinking economic treatment thresholds, suggesting that the mites or their vectored viruses are becoming more virulent. Highly infested weak colonies facilitate mite dispersal and disease transmission to stronger and healthier colonies. Here, we review recent developments in the biology, pathology, and management of varroa, and integrate older knowledge that is less well known., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is the most significant pathological threat to the western honey bee, Apis mellifera, leading to the death of most colonies if left untreated. An alternative approach to chemical treatments is to selectively enhance heritable honey bee traits of resistance or tolerance to the mite through breeding programs, or select for naturally surviving untreated colonies. We conducted a literature review of all studies documenting traits of A. mellifera populations either selectively bred or naturally selected for resistance and tolerance to mite parasitism. This allowed us to conduct an analysis of the diversity, distribution and importance of the traits in different honey bee populations that can survive V. destructor globally. In a second analysis, we investigated the genetic bases of these different phenotypes by comparing 'omics studies (genomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics) of A. mellifera resistance and tolerance to the parasite. Altogether, this review provides a detailed overview of the current state of the research projects and breeding efforts against the most devastating parasite of A. mellifera. By highlighting the most promising traits of Varroa-surviving bees and our current knowledge on their genetic bases, this work will help direct future research efforts and selection programs to control this pest. Additionally, by comparing the diverse populations of honey bees that exhibit those traits, this review highlights the consequences of anthropogenic and natural selection in the interactions between hosts and parasites., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Varroa destructor and its associated viruses, in particular deformed wing virus (DWV), have been identified as probable causes of honey bee (Apis mellif era L.) colony losses. Evidence suggests that elevated DWV titres in bees could compromise sensory and communication abilities resulting in negative consequences for hygienic behaviour. As antennae play a central role in this behaviour, we compared antennal ultrastructure in DWV-symptomatic and asymptomatic bees. The results show that virus capsids accumulate in the basal regions of the antennal epithelium, close to the haemolymph. No virus particles were detected at the level of sensory sensilla, such as pore plates, nor within the sensory cell dendrites associated with these sensilla. However, membranous structures appeared to be more prevalent in supporting cells surrounding the dendrites of DWV-symptomatic bees. Para-crystalline arrays containing large numbers of virus particles were detected in the antennae of DWV-symptomatic bees but not in asymptomatic bees., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The western honeybee Apis mellifera exhibits a diverse set of adaptations in response to infestations by its most virulent disease-causing agent, the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor . In this study, we investigated the effect of honeybee pupae genotype on the expression of four host and parasite traits that are associated with the reproductive phase of the mite in the brood of its host. We first phenotyped cells containing bee pupae to assess their infestation status, their infestation level, the reproductive status of the mites, and the recapping of cells by adult workers. We then genotyped individual pupae with five microsatellites markers to compare these phenotypes across full sister groups. We found that the four phenotypes varied significantly in time but did not across the subfamilies within the colonies. These findings show that V. destructor mites do not differentially infest or reproduce on some particular honeybee patrilines, and that workers do not target preferentially specific pupae genotypes when performing recapping. These findings bring new insights that can help designing sustainable mite control strategies through breeding and provide new insights into the interactions between A. mellifera and V. destructor .

The ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor, is the most severe biotic threat to honeybees (Apis mellifera) globally, usually causing colony death within a few years without treatments. While it is known that a few A. mellifera populations survive mite infestations by means of natural selection, the possible role of mite adaptations remains unclear. To investigate potential changes in mite populations in response to host adaptations, the genetic structure of V. destructor in the mite-resistant A. mellifera population on Gotland, Sweden, was studied. Spatio-temporal genetic changes were assessed by comparing mites collected in these colonies, as well as from neighboring mite-susceptible colonies, in historic (2009) and current (2017/2018) samples. The results show significant changes in the genetic structure of the mite populations during the time frame of this study. These changes were more pronounced in the V. destructor population infesting the mite-resistant honeybee colonies than in the mite-susceptible colonies. These results suggest that V. destructor populations are reciprocating, in a coevolutionary arms race, to the selection pressure induced by their honeybee host. Our data reveal exciting new insights into host-parasite interactions between A. mellifera and its major parasite.

In eusocial insect colonies nestmates cooperate to combat parasites, a trait called social immunity. However, social immunity failed for Western honey bees (Apis mellifera) when the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor switched hosts from Eastern honey bees (Apis cerana). This mite has since become the most severe threat to A. mellifera world-wide. Despite this, some isolated A. mellifera populations are known to survive infestations by means of natural selection, largely by supressing mite reproduction, but the underlying mechanisms of this are poorly understood. Here, we show that a cost-effective social immunity mechanism has evolved rapidly and independently in four naturally V. destructor-surviving A. mellifera populations. Worker bees of all four 'surviving' populations uncapped/recapped worker brood cells more frequently and targeted mite-infested cells more effectively than workers in local susceptible colonies. Direct experiments confirmed the ability of uncapping/recapping to reduce mite reproductive success without sacrificing nestmates. Our results provide striking evidence that honey bees can overcome exotic parasites with simple qualitative and quantitative adaptive shifts in behaviour. Due to rapid, parallel evolution in four host populations this appears to be a key mechanism explaining survival of mite infested colonies.

Background: The parasite Varroa destructor represents a significant threat to honeybee colonies. Indeed, development of Varroa infestation within colonies, if left untreated, often leads to the death of the colony. Although its impact on bees has been extensively studied, less is known about its biology and the functional processes governing its adult life cycle and adaptation to its host. We therefore developed a full life cycle transcriptomic catalogue in adult Varroa females and included pairwise comparisons with males, artificially-reared and non-reproducing females (10 life cycle stages and conditions in total)., Results: Extensive remodeling of the Varroa transcriptome was observed, with an upregulation of energetic and chitin metabolic processes during the initial and final phases of the life cycle (e.g. phoretic and post-oviposition stages), whereas during reproductive stages in brood cells genes showing functions related to transcriptional regulation were overexpressed. Several neurotransmitter and neuropeptide receptors involved in behavioural regulation, as well as active compounds of salivary glands, were also expressed at a higher level outside the reproductive stages. No difference was detected between artificially-reared phoretic females and their counterparts in colonies, or between females who failed to reproduce and females who successfully reproduced, indicating that phoretic individuals can be reared outside host colonies without impacting their physiology and that mechanisms underlying reproductive failure occur before oogenesis., Conclusions: We discuss how these new findings reveal the remarkable adaptation of Varroa to its host biology and notably to the switch from living on adults to reproducing in sealed brood cells. By spanning the entire adult life cycle, our work captures the dynamic changes in the parasite gene expression and serves as a unique resource for deciphering Varroa biology and identifying new targets for mite control.

Introduction: Since 2003, fight against cancer was structured by 3 national cancer programs (CP). The objective of this study is to evaluate the application of these measures in the case of surgical prostate cancer (PCa) treatment in a geographically isolated center., Material: Monocentric retrospective study carried in a 100-bed clinic located 2hours away from a Cancer Regional Reference Center. Between August 2009 and December 2014, 251 consecutive patients were treated by total laparoscopic prostatectomy (TLP). Fifty-seven patients (22.7 %) received a secondary treatment after TLP. The study focused on the delay between prostate biopsies and PTL, the traceability of AD elements, the return of active patients, inclusion in clinical trials (GETUG 17, GETUG 20 and GETUG 22). Data were collected in September 2016. The follow-up defined by the time between the date of the last visit and the prostate biopsy allows a median follow-up of 43.1 months (2.4-80.5)., Results: All elements of the CAP are totally gathered on 45 % of the patients (113/251). Thirty-four (13.5 %) patients were active at the time of the intervention. Thirty-one (91.2 %) will return to an identical activity after a median work stoppage of 1.7 month (0.25-6). Fourteen percent (35/251) of the patients are eligible to a clinical trial. Seventeen percent (6/35) of them were proposed to one of a trial after multidisciplinary meeting and 5.7 % (2/35) are eventually included in one trial., Conclusion: CP define a course of high quality care. A better transparency of the founding of the enforceable measures and a better consideration for the local specificities should facilitate their application. The TLP treat the PCa with the reasonable objective of a return to an identical professional activity. The multidisciplinary meeting does not guarantee the participation to clinical trial, which depends mainly on distance from the Cancer Regional Reference Center and the vigilance of the Urologist., Level of Evidence: 4., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Social immunity forms an essential part of the defence repertoire of social insects. In response to infestation by the parasitic mite Varroa destructor and its associated viruses, honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) have developed a specific behaviour (varroa-sensitive hygiene, or VSH) that helps protect the colony from this parasite. Brood cells heavily infested with mites are uncapped, the brood killed, and the cell contents removed. For this extreme sacrifice to be beneficial to the colony, the targeting of parasitized brood for removal must be accurate and selective. Here we show that varroa-infested brood produce uniquely identifiable cues that could be used by VSH-performing bees to identify with high specificity which brood cells to sacrifice. This selective elimination of mite-infested brood is a disease resistance strategy analogous to programmed cell death, where young bees likely to be highly dysfunctional as adults are sacrificed for the greater good of the colony.

In honey bees, Varroa sensitive hygiene (VSH) behaviour, which involves the detection and removal of brood parasitised by the mite Varroa destructor, can actively participate in the survival of colonies facing Varroa outbreaks. This study investigated the mechanisms of VSH behaviour, by comparing the antennal transcriptomes of bees that do and do not perform VSH behaviour. Results indicate that antennae likely play a key role in the expression of VSH behaviour. Comparisons with the antennal transcriptome of nurse and forager bees suggest that VSH profile is more similar to that of nurse bees than foragers. Enhanced detection of certain odorants in VSH bees may be predicted from transcriptional patterns, as well as a higher metabolism and antennal motor activity. Interestingly, Deformed wing virus/Varroa destructor virus infections were detected in the antennae, with higher level in non-VSH bees; a putative negative impact of viral infection on bees' ability to display VSH behaviour is proposed. These results bring new perspectives to the understanding of VSH behaviour and the evolution of collective defence by focusing attention on the importance of the peripheral nervous system. In addition, such data might be useful for promoting marker-assisted selection of honey bees that can survive Varroa infestations.

Over the past fifty years, annual honeybee (Apis mellifera) colony losses have been steadily increasing worldwide. These losses have occurred in parallel with the global spread of the honeybee parasite Varroa destructor. Indeed, Varroa mite infestations are considered to be a key explanatory factor for the widespread increase in annual honeybee colony mortality. The host-parasite relationship between honeybees and Varroa is complicated by the mite's close association with a range of honeybee viral pathogens. The 10-year history of the expanding front of Varroa infestation in New Zealand offered a rare opportunity to assess the dynamic quantitative and qualitative changes in honeybee viral landscapes in response to the arrival, spread and level of Varroa infestation. We studied the impact of de novo infestation of bee colonies by Varroa on the prevalence and titres of seven well-characterised honeybee viruses in both bees and mites, using a large-scale molecular ecology approach. We also examined the effect of the number of years since Varroa arrival on honeybee and mite viral titres. The dynamic shifts in the viral titres of black queen cell virus and Kashmir bee virus mirrored the patterns of change in Varroa infestation rates along the Varroa expansion front. The deformed wing virus (DWV) titres in bees continued to increase with Varroa infestation history, despite dropping infestation rates, which could be linked to increasing DWV titres in the mites. This suggests that the DWV titres in mites, perhaps boosted by virus replication, may be a major factor in maintaining the DWV epidemic after initial establishment. Both positive and negative associations were identified for several pairs of viruses, in response to the arrival of Varroa. These findings provide important new insights into the role of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor in influencing the viral landscape that affects honeybee colonies.

The parasitic mite Varroa destructor is responsible for heavy losses in honey bee colonies and represents a major threat to the beekeeping industry. Essential oils offer an attractive alternative to the use of synthetic chemicals for the control of varroa. Amongst them, thymol appears to be particularly promising. However, treatments using thymol as their active substance, such as the gel formulation Apiguard(®), are suspected to have adverse effects on honey bee colonies. In this study, laboratory assays are used to investigate the effects of Apiguard(®) exposure on honey bee behaviour. Our results reveal that honey bee responses to this anti-varroa treatment change with honey bee age. While 2-day-old bees respond neutrally to Apiguard(®), older bees generally avoid the Apiguard(®) gel. Responses of forager bees were particularly striking. Foragers appear to be repelled by Apiguard(®). Touching their antennae with Apiguard(®) induces robust fanning behaviour. Our data suggest, however, that forager bees exposed to Apiguard(®) in the hive can become habituated to this treatment. These results offer interesting new perspectives on the effects of Apiguard(®) on honey bee behaviour and serve to highlight age-related changes in honey bee responses to gustatory, as well as olfactory cues.

Global pollinators, like honeybees, are declining in abundance and diversity, which can adversely affect natural ecosystems and agriculture. Therefore, we tested the current hypotheses describing honeybee losses as a multifactorial syndrome, by investigating integrative effects of an infectious organism and an insecticide on honeybee health. We demonstrated that the interaction between the microsporidia Nosema and a neonicotinoid (imidacloprid) significantly weakened honeybees. In the short term, the combination of both agents caused the highest individual mortality rates and energetic stress. By quantifying the strength of immunity at both the individual and social levels, we showed that neither the haemocyte number nor the phenoloxidase activity of individuals was affected by the different treatments. However, the activity of glucose oxidase, enabling bees to sterilize colony and brood food, was significantly decreased only by the combination of both factors compared with control, Nosema or imidacloprid groups, suggesting a synergistic interaction and in the long term a higher susceptibility of the colony to pathogens. This provides the first evidences that interaction between an infectious organism and a chemical can also threaten pollinators, interactions that are widely used to eliminate insect pests in integrative pest management.

Objective: Evaluate the influence on professional practices of a systematic indication of a quality score (IGap) in the conclusion of the pathologic reports (CRFS) of prostatic biopsies (PB)., Materials and Method: Prospective study carried over 339 consecutive 10 core extended standardized PB performed by two urologists over a period of 22 months. The CRFS were computerized. The conclusion included an IGap ranking from 0 to 1, automatically computed from three criteria: the average length of the PB, the number of PB with identified capsules or periprostatic tissues and the average number of fragments per PB. The quality was best when the index is close to 1. A quarterly monitoring of the average of IGap was performed for the two urologists. The student t test was used to compare the averages., Results: The average of IGap of the urologists A and B was, respectively, of 0.57 (s=0.1; n=184) and 0.66 (s=0.1; n=155): p<0.001. At quarter 1, the averages of IGap of the urologists A and B are, wads of respectively, of 0.47 (s=0.14; n=25) and 0.7 (s=0.12; n=14) (p<0.001). The significant difference of the average of IGap of the urologists A and B observed on quarter 1 progressively decline to disappear from the quarter 4., Conclusions: At equivalent protocols, the urologists do not necessarily perform PB of comparable quality. A systematic indication of an IGap in the pathological reports of PB seems to prompt the urologists to modify their practices toward an improvement of the score.

Objectives: Develop a score allowing the pathologist to objectively report on the overall quality of extended standardized prostatic biopsy (EPB)., Methods: A prospective study was carried out on 339 consecutive protocols of 10 core EPB (PSA<10 ng/ml). Reports are standardized and computerized. The conclusion of the reports includes an estimate of the overall quality of the EPB based on three items to classify the protocols in three groups: protocol of "good" quality (group 1), "medium" quality (group 2) and "poor" quality (group 3). The score (IGap) is automatically computed from three objective criteria also shown on the conclusion of the report: the average length of the 10 biopsies (LM), the number of biopsies on which capsular elements can be identified (BCI) and the average number of fragment per biopsy (Fm). The IGap index rank from 0 to 1. The average IGap of the three groups is computed using the t-test., Results: The average IGaps of the groups 1, 2 and 3 are respectively of 0,65 (0,37-0,89 ; n=250), 0,52 (0,36-0,71 ; n=69) and 0,43 (0,22-0,6 ; n=20), (p<0,001)., Conclusion: IGap is a pertinent score reporting objectively of the overall quality of EPB. An IGap close to one indicates a good quality of EPB. An IGap close to zero indicate a poor quality of EPB.

Objective: To evaluate the quality of prostatic biopsies (PB) by studying the mean biopsy length (Lm) and its impact on the result., Materials and Method: Prospective study on 78 consecutive PBs (extended 10 biopsy protocol) performed for PSA > 4 and < or = 12 ng/ml. Biopsy reports were standardized and computerized and indicated a global PB quality criterion and Lm. Biopsies were classified by Lm. The presence of carcinoma was studied in each group., Results: The mean age was 67.5 years (50-80). The mean Lm of PB described as good quality (46.15%) was 11.8 mm (8.5-13.8) versus 6.6 mm (2.1-10.7) for the other PBs (53.85%) (p< 0.001). Lm was < 8 mm for 38% of PBs and > or = 12 mm for 23%. 31.8% of PBs with Lm < 10 mm detected a cancer versus 41.2% of PBs with Lm > or = 10 mm (p>0.1). The mean cumulative length of carcinomatous sites of positive PBs with Lm < 10 mm was 9.42 mm (1-39) versus 18.42 min (1-60) for Lm > or = 10 mm (p<0.001)., Conclusions: A standardized protocol does not guarantee the quality of PB. Lm is an objective criterion indicative of the global quality of PB. An Lm < 10 mm underestimates cancer detection. PB must be interpreted according to an objective quality criterion indicated in the conclusion of the report.

Laparoscopic nephro-ureterectomy has been proposed as an alternative to conventional double-incision surgery to treat upper urinary tract tumours. A case of hepatic and pulmonary metastatic dissemination four months after laparoscopic nephro-ureterectomy for pT3 N0 M0 intra-renal urothelial carcinoma raises the question of the possible role of laparoscopy in the rapidly unfavourable course of the disease. This case is discussed in the light of a review of the literature.

Objective: To evaluate the predictive factors for cavernosal metastases after cystoprostatectomy for transitional cell bladder cancer., Material and Method: Between February 1998 and January 2002, 61 men were treated by cystectomy for transitional cell bladder cancer (56 total cystoprostatectomies and 5 partial cystectomies). Five patients (8%) subsequently developed cavernosal metastases. The assessment criteria were classified into three categories: clinical history, histological findings on the operative specimen and follow-up data., Results: The metastasis was observed an average of 8.4 months (range: 3-17) after cystoprostatectomy. Three of the 5 patients had a history of transurethral procedure at the same time as resection of a high-grade invasive bladder tumour: a urethral recurrence concomitant with the penile metastasis was observed in these cases. In 4 out of 5 cases, the bladder tumour was multifocal, involving the bladder neck, extensive and high-grade (> or = pT3 G3). Vascular tumour emboli were detected on the cystoprostatectomy specimen in 4 cases. All urethral sections performed during cystectomy were negative. All 5 patients died with a mean survival of 7 months (range: 1 to 21 months)., Conclusion: The development of penile metastases after cystectomy appears to be frequently associated with the presence of extensive tumour (> or = pT3) on the operative specimen, involving the bladder neck, with a high histoprognostic grade and with the presence of tumour embolus. No transurethral procedures should be performed at the same time as resection of an obviously invasive bladder tumour. Health urethral sections do not exclude the risk of penile metastases.

The aim of this study was to give a microscopic description of the organization, the innervation and the slow or fast type of the striated fibers of the external urethral sphincter in the female rat. Conventional methods for photonic microscopy and immunochemistry were applied to cross and longitudinal sections of snap-frozen urethra. With hematoxylin-eosin stained cross sections, striated fibers are of small diameter and attached directly to the surrounding connective tissue. They are innervated by cholinergic endplates as shown by acetylcholinesterase techniques and alpha-bungarotoxin binding. The histological aspects of the cross sections as well as the distribution of endplates along the length of the sphincter suggest an organization of the fibers in four bundles, possibly acting as a photographic diaphragm does. Like striated skeletal muscle fibers, the fibers bind monoclonal antibodies against dystrophin with subsarcolemmal distribution and against desmin which visualizes striations. All the fibers express fast myosin heavy chains and very few co-express slow myosin heavy chains as determined by immunocytochemistry. We are taking advantage of the diaphragmatic organization of the striated sphincter to develop a longitudinal section as a model of chronic incontinence to test the efficiency of grafted myoblasts provided by fast striated skeletal muscle.

Objectives: To determine the organization of striated muscle fibre (FMS) of the rat striated sphincter (SS) and to characterize the motor endplates (MEP)., Material and Methods: The urethras of 30 male and female rats were studied. Two thousand hematein-eosin stained serial sections and 800 sections simultaneously stained for MEPs and nerve endings were studied., Results: The SMFs of the SS are organized in the urethral wall in four symmetrical bands. MEPs are predominantly found in the cranial third of the SS (22 MEPs per section). Sixty sixteen per cent of MEPs were situated in the lateral regions. Motor units were composed of a maximum of five SMFs., Conclusion: The SMFs of the SS are organized in four symmetrical bands. Myoconnective insertions of SMFs emphasize the importance of the connective tissue in their contractile action. They are innervated by a single MEP, in the same way as skeletal striated muscle fibres. In the SS, MEPs are predominantly located laterally to the right and to the left. The specific organization of motor units suggests an original mechanism of reinforcement of muscle contraction of the SS.

We report a complication during the treatment of lithiasis with extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in a patient with a ureterosigmoidostomy. This woman presented with renal colic bilaterally and renal insufficiency and was found to have an extremely mobile calculus. A significant gaseous reflux from the sigmoid colon was found to propel the solitary calculus in a retrograde fashion across the ureteroileal anastomosis up the ureter into one kidney, and then later, after re-descent to the level of the anastomosis, up into the opposite kidney. After several days of playing hide and seek with this migrating calculus, using extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, the patient became stone free.

Objectives: To quantitatively evaluate the emergency activity of a teaching hospital urology department. To determine the epidemiology of urological medical and surgical emergencies., Material and Method: Single-centre prospective study conducted in one of the 9 teaching hospital urology departments of the Paris region equipped with an emergency room. The on-call team consisted of an intern and a hospital student on the spot, a Senior Registrar on call. Evaluation was based on daily computer records of all consultations performed by the intern outside of the urology department, and all emergency surgical operations performed during the out-of-hours period (8:00 p.m. to 8:00 a.m.)., Results: A total of 1,715 consultations were performed, 15.6% of which required admission to hospital. Eleven per cent of consultations in the emergency department were transferred from another centre. Emergency surgery was performed in 5% of cases. 37 multi-organ harvests and 54 renal transplantations were also performed during this same period. Mean age: 53.18 years (range: 15-100). 12% of patients were over the age of 80 years. Sex-ratio: 78% of males, 22% of females. The most frequent presenting complaint was low back pain (25%). The diseases most frequently encountered were infectious (19.2%). 30% of emergency surgical operations were performed for drainage of obstructive pyelonephritis. Bladder tumours were the cancers most frequently responsible for emergency consultations (35%) and traumatology represented 8.7% of emergency consultations., Conclusion: Urological emergencies in a teaching hospital constitute a distinct clinical activity, which requires specific material and human resources. This exhaustive study could be used as a basis for review of the organization of the management of urological emergencies.

Unlabelled: INDICATION FOR SURGERY: Exercise-induced urinary incontinence is responsible for more than 75% of all cases of urinary incontinence in women. Surgery can provide excellent cure if the initial indication is established properly., Surgical Procedures: The aim is to correct the mechanical alterations leading to urine leakage: sphincter anomalies and cervico-urethral hypermobility. Colpo-suspension using the indirect Burch procedure and the direct Goebell-Stoeckel procedure are indicated for physically active patients. For sphincter failure, an artificial sphincter with a fixed bladder neck is indicated. Simplified transvaginal colpo-suspension is indicated for elderly women. TENSION FREE VAGINAL TAPE: The recently developed, this new technique appears extremely promising for the treatment of urethral hypermobility.

Objective: To evaluate the morbidity of ambulatory repair of anterior hypospadias with a transurethral vesical catheter (TUVC) draining the urine between 2 diapers., Material and Methods: 34 children divided into two comparable groups were operated for anterior hypospadias. Group A comprised 17 children operated by ambulatory surgery, with catheter drainage of urine between 2 diapers. Group B consisted of 17 children operated by a conventional inpatient procedure, with the catheter connected to a urine collector. Postoperative complications and the results of a satisfaction questionnaire sent to the parents of children in group A are reported., Results: In group A, one case of TUVC dysfunction was reported and 13 parents declared to be satisfied. One urethral fistula occurred in group B., Conclusion: Ambulatory repair of anterior hypospadias with TUVC draining urine between 2 diapers does not induce a higher complication rate than when repair is performed by conventional hospitalisation with the TUVC connected to a urine collector. Urine drainage by TUVC is not a contraindication to ambulatory surgical repair of anterior hypospadias in children.