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One experiment determined the relationship between renewed associative strength and attention. Following cue1-outcome pairings in Context A, cue1 was extinguished in Context B while cue2 was conditioned. On test cue2 was chosen as a predictor of the outcome in Context B. Both cues were chosen equally often as predictors in Context A. Consistent with attributing attention to effective associative strength (as noted in a previous study), participants could locate only cue2 in Context B while both were located in Context A, regardless of having been chosen as a predictor. Attention varied as a function of both cues' associative strengths across contexts.

Prior research, using two- and three-dimensional environments, has found that when both human and nonhuman animals independently acquire two associations between landmarks with a common landmark (e.g., LM1-LM2 and LM2-LM3), each with its own spatial relationship, they behave as if the two unique LMs have a known spatial relationship despite their never having been paired. Seemingly, they have integrated the two associations to create a third association with its own spatial relationship (LM1-LM3). Using sensory preconditioning (Experiment 1) and second-order conditioning (Experiment 2) procedures, we found that human participants integrated information about the boundaries of pathways to locate a goal within a three-dimensional virtual environment in the absence of any relevant landmarks. Spatial integration depended on the participant experiencing a common boundary feature with which to link the pathways. These results suggest that the principles of associative learning also apply to the boundaries of an environment.

Three experiments explored relational responding in evaluative conditioning. In Experiment 1, the participants were trained with a computer task to make relational responses by putting CSs of different sizes in boxes in order of size. Subsequently they were instructed that these different sized CSs represented different intensities of hypothetical USs (money and shock). Results show (1) more positive evaluations of CSs representing positive than negative USs; (2) a CS-US intensity effect, with larger conditioning effects for CSs representing USs of more intense value; and (3) a reversal in evaluative ratings for the weakest CS-US combinations (i.e. CSs associated with USs representing a mild shock are evaluated more positively than those representing a small amount of money). Experiment 2 was conducted with the goal of controlling for an alternative S-R learning explanation for the reversal effect. Finally, Experiment 3 showed that reversal was the result of the relational responding procedure. Overall our findings indicate that a comparative context created by relational responding can modulate and reverse evaluative ratings. (Contains 2 figures.)

The role of context was examined in the selection and integration of independently learned spatial relationships. Using a dynamic 3D virtual environment, participants learned one spatial relationship between landmarks A and B which was established in one virtual context (e.g., A is left of B) and a different spatial relationship which was established in another virtual context (e.g., A is in front of B). A spatial relationship between B and a goal was then established, using the same landmark-to-goal relationship in each context. When given A in either context at test, participants were more likely to choose a position in expectation of the goal, based on the relationship of A to B previously established in that context. Thus, context can be used to disambiguate conflicting spatial information. This research is discussed in light of Miller and Escobar's (2002) retrieval model. (Contains 3 figures.)

Three experiments tested human participants on a two-dimensional, computer, landmark-based search task to assess the integration of independently acquired spatial and temporal relationships. Experiment 1 showed that A--B spatial training followed by B--outcome spatial training resulted in spatial integration in such a way that A was effectively associated with the outcome. Experiment 2 showed that A--B spatial and temporal training followed by B--outcome spatial and temporal training resulted in integration that created both spatial and temporal relationships between A and the outcome. Experiment 3 refuted an alternative explanation, one that is based on decision-making speed, to the temporal-integration strategy that was suggested by Experiment 2. These results replicate in humans the observations regarding spatial integration made by Sawa, Leising, and Blaisdell (2005) using a spatial-search task with pigeons, and they extend those observations to temporal integration. doi:10.3758/LB.38.1.27

Three conditioned lick suppression experiments with rats examined the role of the context in the selection and integration of independently acquired interval relationships. In Experiment 1, rats were exposed to separate conditioned stimuli 1 and 2 (CS1--CS2) pairings with 2 different interval relationships, each in its own distinctive context, X or Y. The resultant integration was determined by the training context (X or Y) in which unconditioned stimulus (US)--CS2 backward pairings occurred, as assessed in a third neutral context (Z). In Experiment 2, rats experienced CS1--CS2 pairings with 2 different interval relationships as in Experiment 1, and then received US--CS2 pairings in both contexts X and Y. The testing context (i.e., X or Y) determined the resultant integration. In Experiment 3, rats were exposed to CS1--CS2 pairings in 2 different interval relationships each in different phases (i.e., Phases 1 and 2), and then in Phase 3 received US--CS2 pairings. The temporal context of testing (i.e., short or long retention interval) determined the resultant integration. Thus, both physical and temporal context can be used to disambiguate conflicting temporal information. Keywords: temporal coding, temporal integration, context, decision processes DOI: 10.1037/a0016055

Four experiments explored signal timing in human conditioned avoidance. Participants received discrimination training with different duration signals that announced the outcome (S+) or not (S-). Temporal discrimination and superposition of performance to S + signals of different length (3, 6, or 9 s) was found both in within-subjects (Experiment la) and between-subjects (Experiment 1b) designs. S- signals also produced a temporal discrimination and superposition effect during a single test trial conducted after the meaning of the signals was reversed through instructions. Experiments 2a and 2b replicated these results in a situation in which (a) the durations of the S+ and S- signals were different (4.5 or 9 s) to prevent any temporal generalization between them (Experiment 2a), and (b) only S signals were presented during training, precluding developing of inhibition to S- (Experiment 2b). These results show that participants time both S+ and S- signals in human conditioned avoidance, and they further suggest that the timing of a cue is independent of reinforcement. Keywords: temporal discrimination, superposition, discrimination reversal, latent timing, human conditioned avoidance

Two high-powered experiments examined the role of evaluative response production in the extinction of evaluative conditioning (EC) by positioning EC in the procedural and conceptual framework of classical conditioning (CC). According to Rescorla's response inhibition hypothesis, more frequent responding during extinction training results in larger extinction during testing. Experiment 1 used three extinction conditions following response acquisition in an EC procedure: evaluative responses were measured only after extinction; after acquisition and after extinction; or were continuously measured after acquisition, during extinction and after extinction. Based on Rescorla's response inhibition hypothesis, we predicted that extinction of EC would be the highest in the third condition. Experiment 2 was aimed at further facilitating extinction of EC by encouraging participants to experience that their evaluation may change over the course of the experiment. To this end, half of the participants completed pre- and post-acquisition ratings prior to practicing continuous response expression in the extinction phase. Contrary to our predictions, no extinction of EC was observed in either of these experiments. We conclude that Rescorla's inhibition response hypothesis may not apply to EC and discuss the theoretical implications of this finding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]