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Recently, an inverse relationship between incidence of COVID-19 and seasonal aerosolization of mold spores was demonstrated. Analyses of that relationship suggested mold spores compete with SARS-CoV-2 virions for a receptor on the pulmonary epithelial surface. By inference, the operative receptor was proposed to be Toll-like receptor 4, with surface-localized virions being responsible for symptomatology. In this report, the pathogenesis of COVID-19 is further developed, with a focus on a role for surfactant protein D in the process. This developed proposal provides both mechanistic understanding and suggested treatments of COVID-19.

In a university library, activities typical of librarians, such as unpacking boxes, removing books from the shelves, dusting, packing boxes, cataloguing, conservation and repair, photocopying, setting materials for class, and walking in a main hallway, were found to reduce indoor air quality through the production of airborne mold spores, metal dusts, and particulate matter of different size bins. Analyzing three libraries, the activity of conservation generated 9000 spores/m3 of mold spores, nearing the exposure limit of 104 spores/m3 reported for Penicillium sp., and silver nanoparticles of about 15 µg/m3, that over 8 h would exceed the occupational exposure limit of 0.19 µg/m3. For none of the activities, the levels of particulate matter with a diameter lower than 2.5 µm (PM2.5) and 10 µm (PM10) did not exceed the 8-h time weight average limits of exposure. However, by analyzing the 5th percentile of the real-time PM10 data, values of about 1.5 mg/m3, which is concerning for occupational exposure. Measuring real-time exposures of PM could generate an estimation of levels of mold spores and metal dusts in libraries. We demonstrate a high Spearman’s rank correlation (0.70) between the 5th percentile of PM with a diameter lower than 1 µm and different metals. A high linearity (R2 = 0.85) is obtained between the total average of PM with a diameter lower than 10 µm and mold spores/m3.

Data from Chicago confirm the end of flu season coincides with the beginning of pollen season. More importantly, the end of flu season also coincides with onset of seasonal aerosolization of mold spores. Overall, the data suggest bioaerosols, especially mold spores, compete with viruses for a shared receptor, with the periodicity of influenza-like illnesses, including COVID-19, a consequence of seasonal factors that influence aerosolization of competing species.

Koji is made by culturing koji mold on grains. Koji has wide-ranging applications, for example, in alcoholic beverages and seasonings. The word ‘mold’ generally has a bad image, but in Japan, koji mold is valued for its usefulness, and over the years, efforts have been made to make safe, stable, and delicious food products from it. Koji mold spores, essential when making koji, are called koji starter in the industry. From the many available strains, those suitable for the production of each fermented food are chosen based on indicators such as growth rate and enzyme production capacity. In manufacturing using microorganisms, purity and yield are prioritized. However, the production of fermented foods using koji is more complex, with focus not only on the degree of decomposition of raw materials but also on factors influencing overall product design, including palatability, color, smell, and texture. Production can be facilitated by the variety of koji brought about by the diversity of koji mold combined with the solid culture method which increases the amount of enzyme production. In this report, we introduce the history of koji starter in Japan, the characteristics of koji mold in practice, and various fermented foods made from it. In addition, the factors affecting the quality of koji in solid culture are described.

Background: Environmental exposure is critical in sensitization to environmental allergens and pediatric asthma morbidity, especially in tropical climates where children are perennially exposed to bioaerosols, such as pollen and mold spores, and endotoxins. Objective: This cross-sectional study examines the association of allergies, associated allergic comorbidities, and the home environment separately and synergistically in pediatric asthma, including in asthma prevalence, severity of asthma, and undiagnosed asthma, in South Florida. Methods: An online survey was administered to the parents of children attending two of the University of Miami pediatric clinics from June to October 2016. Descriptive, factor, and multivariate regression analyses were used to analyze the data. Results: Of 163 children, 22% (36) children had physician-diagnosed asthma, 10% and 32% had allergic rhinitis diagnosis and rhinitis symptoms, respectively, in the past. The allergy diagnosis age was 2.3 years higher than the asthma diagnosis age (p &lt, 0.01). Children with ≥ 2 allergies were 12.8 times more likely to have physician-diagnosed asthma than those without allergies (p &lt, 0.01). Children with allergies and allergic rhinitis were 4.3 (p &lt, 0.05) times more likely to have asthma, and those with asthma were 15 (p &lt, 0.05) times more likely to have an asthma attack than those without known allergies and allergic rhinitis. Conclusion: Allergies and associated comorbidities are risk factors of asthma, asthma persistence, and multiple allergies exacerbate their effects. Early screening for allergies and treatment are warranted to manage asthma. Since the home environment plays an important role in sensitization to allergens, further research is needed to assess home-environment-mediated allergic conditions in the onset and persistence of asthma.

Aspergillus superinfection often accompanies severe COVID-19, even in immunocompetent individuals [1]. An inverse relationship between the incidence of COVID-19 and seasonal pollens [2] and mold spores [3] has recently been demonstrated. The relationship appears to be due to competition between airborne bioaerosols and SARS-CoV-2 virions, for a shared receptor on pulmonary epithelial cells [3]. As the shared receptor, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) has been implicated because: 1) it accounts for the inflammatory signaling characteristic of severe COVID-19 [4], [5], 2) it is intimately involved in the inflammation elicited both by sharply seasonal respiratory viruses and by multiple species of fungi, 3) COVID-19 prognosis correlates with radiographic involvement of alveoli, the epithelial cells of which are rich in TLR4, 4) age-dependent hyper-responsiveness of TLR4, especially in the context of interactions with TLR5, can account for the age-dependent severity of COVID-19, and 5) fibrinogen D-dimers, composites of TLR4 ligands [6], are markedly elevated in persons with severe COVID-19. That TLR4 be involved in the processing of bioaerosols like respiratory viruses and mold spores is also expected on phylogenetic grounds: the receptor is retained by fish that breathe air, but lost by those that do not, and the eponymous Toll receptor controls the antifungal response of Drosophila. Engagement of TLR4 by bioaerosols is imagined to occur akin to the engagement of hook-and-loop adhesives. Instead of loops, however, spinous processes of the bioaerosols engage TLR4 ‘hooks,’ effecting an innate immune response. If TLR4 is inundated with SARS-CoV-2 virions, the immune response against airborne spores of Aspergillus is abated, rendering the spores free to grow and propagate on pulmonary epithelium. Early in the spring, when the dynamic equilibrium between airborne species of virions and spores is in transition, spores will accumulate within airways, unattended by TLR4. This will be especially true in environments in which contaminated organic materials and decaying vegetation are prevalent, including farms, wood and food industries, waste handling plants and slaughterhouses. Given this new appreciation of the interplay between respiratory viruses and mold spores, it behooves those tending patients with severe COVID-19 to be especially vigilant for Aspergillus co-infection during the spring, when mold spore counts are on the rise.

Data from Chicago confirm the end of flu season coincides with the beginning of pollen season. The end of flu season also coincides with onset of seasonal aerosolization of mold spores. Overall, the data suggest bioaerosols, especially mold spores, compete with viruses for a shared receptor, with the periodicity of influenza-like illnesses, including COVID-19, a consequence of seasonal factors that influence aerosolization of competing species.

Humans have always been in contact with natural airborne particles from many sources including biologic particulate matter (PM) which can exhibit allergenic properties. With industrialization, anthropogenic and combustion-derived particles have become a major fraction. Currently, an ever-growing number of diverse and innovative materials containing engineered nanoparticles (NPs) are being developed with great expectations in technology and medicine. Nanomaterials have entered everyday products including cosmetics, textiles, electronics, sports equipment, as well as food, and food packaging. As part of natural evolution humans have adapted to the exposure to particulate matter, aiming to protect the individual's integrity and health. At the respiratory barrier, complications can arise, when allergic sensitization and pulmonary diseases occur in response to particle exposure. Particulate matter in the form of plant pollen, dust mites feces, animal dander, but also aerosols arising from industrial processes in occupational settings including diverse mixtures thereof can exert such effects. This review article gives an overview of the allergic immune response and addresses specifically the mechanisms of particulates in the context of allergic sensitization, effector function and therapy. In regard of the first theme (i), an overview on exposure to particulates and the functionalities of the relevant immune cells involved in allergic sensitization as well as their interactions in innate and adaptive responses are described. As relevant for human disease, we aim to outline (ii) the potential effector mechanisms that lead to the aggravation of an ongoing immune deviation (such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, etc.) by inhaled particulates, including NPs. Even though adverse effects can be exerted by (nano)particles, leading to allergic sensitization, and the exacerbation of allergic symptoms, promising potential has been shown for their use in (iii) therapeutic approaches of allergic disease, for example as adjuvants. Hence, allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is introduced and the role of adjuvants such as alum as well as the current understanding of their mechanisms of action is reviewed. Finally, future prospects of nanomedicines in allergy treatment are described, which involve modern platform technologies combining immunomodulatory effects at several (immuno-)functional levels.

Grass allergic patients recognize group 1 allergens in grass straw. Group 1 allergens from grass straw are able to interact with spores. Spores bound to Phl p 1-like proteins from grass straw can induce an asthma exacerbation in mouse model.

Humans have always been in contact with natural airborne particles from many sources including biologic particulate matter (PM) which can exhibit allergenic properties. With industrialization, anthropogenic and combustion-derived particles have become a major fraction. Currently, an ever-growing number of diverse and innovative materials containing engineered nanoparticles (NPs) are being developed with great expectations in technology and medicine. Nanomaterials have entered everyday products including cosmetics, textiles, electronics, sports equipment, as well as food, and food packaging. As part of natural evolution humans have adapted to the exposure to particulate matter, aiming to protect the individual's integrity and health. At the respiratory barrier, complications can arise, when allergic sensitization and pulmonary diseases occur in response to particle exposure. Particulate matter in the form of plant pollen, dust mites feces, animal dander, but also aerosols arising from industrial processes in occupational settings including diverse mixtures thereof can exert such effects. This review article gives an overview of the allergic immune response and addresses specifically the mechanisms of particulates in the context of allergic sensitization, effector function and therapy. In regard of the first theme (i), an overview on exposure to particulates and the functionalities of the relevant immune cells involved in allergic sensitization as well as their interactions in innate and adaptive responses are described. As relevant for human disease, we aim to outline (ii) the potential effector mechanisms that lead to the aggravation of an ongoing immune deviation (such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, etc.) by inhaled particulates, including NPs. Even though adverse effects can be exerted by (nano)particles, leading to allergic sensitization, and the exacerbation of allergic symptoms, promising potential has been shown for their use in (iii) therapeutic approaches of allergic disease, for example as adjuvants. Hence, allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is introduced and the role of adjuvants such as alum as well as the current understanding of their mechanisms of action is reviewed. Finally, future prospects of nanomedicines in allergy treatment are described, which involve modern platform technologies combining immunomodulatory effects at several (immuno-)functional levels. (VLID)5337718

Germicidal ultraviolet light (UV) systems have been widely used in the field of healthcare to help disinfect equipment, surfaces, and air supply systems. Applications include disinfection of whole rooms (including operating rooms), walls and floors, medical equipment, and cooling coils. UV is a highly effective and predictable technology to ensure sterilization of almost any types of surfaces and to eliminate microbial growth. Public health agencies such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the USA (CDC) recommend UV use as an effective technology to disrupt pathogen transmission in building ventilation systems. The current rarity of UV disinfection stems from the fact that it has been erroneously assumed that air filters are sufficient to provide sterilized air. The last 25 years of data has shown that this is far from reality. When dealing with sub-micron bio-contaminants in the size range of 0.1–0.4 micron, even the best filtration technologies fail to stop them all. HEPA filter challenged with a concentration of one million viable particles per cubic meter at a flow rate of 1000 m3/h could allow as much as 500,000 particles every hour to go through. During the course of a single day, a total of 12 million bio-viable particles will penetrate the filter and contaminate the aseptic zone. Those uncaptured bio-contaminants particulates can be rendered innocuous by a proper use of UV germicidal irradiation (UVGI) technology. This chapter presents an overview of how germicidal UV can be used to sterilize a wide spectrum of microorganisms (e.g., bacteria, mold spores, and viruses) in air stream as well as on contaminated wall and objects.

Allicin microcapsules feature seasoning, health care and drug functions, moreover they possess high water solubility and strong stability. In this study, preservative effects of the microcapsules on daily foods including tofu, bread, cooked chicken and cooked pork, were revealed for the first time. When the four foods were treated with the microcapsules, their DI (disease index) values decreased greatly; once their effective antifungal concentrations were above 0.045%, their DI values were zero and there was no mold growth on the four foods. Even if they were boiled for 0.5 h, their effective antifungal concentrations only increased to 0.050%. When the microcapsules after the severe heat treatment were applied to the foods, their reduction rates of mold spores (Rm) increased only between (14.5 ± 1.1)% and (26.3 ± 2.7)%, which suggested that a large amount of the microcapsules still kept excellent actual fungicidal effects after the heat treatment. As a novel preservative, the microcapsules were effective, safe and worthy of exploitation, and had potential applications in the preservative of food.

Indoor swimming pools are the ideal environment for mold growth as they are intentionally humid and warm. Although there are no established safe exposure levels for airborne mold spores, their presence has been associated with adverse health effects that may put individuals at risk. The objective of this pilot study was to observe the occurrence of airborne mold within indoor swimming pools (n = 6) in the Greater Toronto Area. Viable air samples were taken using a Surface Air System air sampler and cultured to quantify and identify airborne mold using microscopy. In addition, relative humidity and temperature were measured and facility characteristics were recorded. Overall, the mold counts were relatively low and were consistent with the literature. However, a biodiverse fungal profile was found at most sites—some of which included fungal groups linked to harmful health effects in humans. Since this was a pilot study, further research is suggested to determine whether the concentration of mold is a cause for concern.

Bioaerosol is a concept that is used to describe all biological materials suspended in the air, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, pollen, and their derivatives such as allergens, endotoxin, mycotoxins and etc. In some studies, primary biological aerosol particle (PBAP) is also coined to refer to intact microbes in the air. Bioaerosol is a multidisciplinary research subject, involving many different fields such as microbiology, mechanical engineering, air pollution, medical science, epidemiology, immunological science, biochemistry, physics, nanotechnologies and etc. The bioaerosol field has undergone about 200 years' research history since 1833 when mold spores were first detected in the air by Charles Darwin on the Cape Verde Islands. In recent decades, there has been a research boom in bioaerosol field, thus triggering many outstanding research opportunities. Visible progress has already been made in understanding bioaerosol roles in human health, atmospheric and ecological impacts as well as their respective technologies: bioaerosol capture, monitoring and also inactivation. Most recently, researchers from different fields start to bridge together for solving bioaerosol challenges and addressing key scientific problems, e.g., bioaerosol spread, real-time detection, indoor microbes, human bioaerosol emissions, and bio-defense. Toward this effort, a “Bioaerosol Xiangshan Science Conference-the 600th” has been successfully held in the summer in Beijing, China. A total of 47 scientists and funding agency officials including leading bioaerosol experts from overseas were invited and two-day long extensive discussions on bioaerosol progress and problems were carried out. Future bioaerosol directions have been outlined by the attendees during the conference. Some of the participants have also contributed to this bioaerosol special issue. This special issue consists of a total of 20 bioaerosol articles from eight countries including one review, and contributes to the advances in bioaerosol emission, transmission, health effects, ambient bioaerosols, method development and instrumentation, and control. Through this special issue, the bioaerosol community has obtained a better understanding of bioaerosol health risks and developed the corresponding strategies to confront the threats. This special issue might serve as a starting point to not only link bioaerosol scientists from different continents, but also bring together people from various fields yet with an interest in bioaerosol to collectively advance the field further.

Clove oil exhibits antimicrobial activities against a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms. Microencapsulation technology can be used to improve its stability and water solubility. The actual application of clove oil microcapsule on the antifungal preservation of meat products, such as cooked fish, cooked chicken, cooked pork, and cooked beef, was investigated in this study. Results showed that clove oil microcapsule displayed good antiseptic effects on these meat products at an effective fungicidal concentration of above 0.070%. Even if the meat was boiled for 0.5 h, the efficiency of clove oil microcapsule increased to 0.080%. Clove oil microcapsules had a trong heat resistance and high inhibition effect on meat products, and their disease indices and variation rates of mold spores also decreased. As a novel alternative, clove oil microcapsule had practical applications as a preservative in meat products, especially in foods requiring heat processing.

Bioaerosol is a concept that is used to describe all biological materials suspended in the air, including bacteria, fungi, viruses, pollen, and their derivatives such as allergens, endotoxin, myctoxins and etc. In some studies, primary biological aerosol particle (PBAP) is also coined to refer to intact microbes in the air. Bioaerosol is a multidisciplinary research subject, involving many different fields such as microbiology, mechanical engineering, air pollution, medical science, epidemiology, immunological science, biochemistry, physics, nanotechnologies and etc. The bioaerosol field has undergone about 200 years' research history since 1833 when mold spores were first detected in the air by Charles Darwin on the Cape Verde Islands. In recent decades, there has been a research boom in bioaerosol field, thus triggering many outstanding collaboration opportunities. Visible progress has already been made in understanding bioaerosol roles in human health, atmospheric and ecological impacts as well as their respective technologies: bioaerosol capture, monitoring and also inactivation. Most recently, researchers from different fields start to bridge together for solving bioaerosol challenges and addressing key scientific problems, e.g., bioaerosol spread, real-time detection, indoor microbes, human bioaerosol emissions, and bio-defense. Toward this effort, a “Xiangshan Science Conference” with a bioaerosol focus has been successfully held in the summer of 2017 in Beijing, China. A total of 47 scientists and funding agency officials from diverse fields including leading bioaerosol experts from overseas were invited and two-day long extensive discussions on bioaerosol progress and problems were carried out. Future bioaerosol directions have been outlined by the attendees during the conference. Some of the participants have already contributed to this bioaersol special issue. This special issue might serve as a starting point to not only link bioaerosol scientists from different continents, but also bring together people from various fields yet with an interest in bioaerosol for collaboration, the special issue is expected to collectively advance our understanding of the bioaerosol roles in the earth system. This preface will be updated accordingly when the special issue is completed in early 2018.

Background: Pasco County Fire Rescue (PCFR) is a rapidly growing suburban fire department located in Florida. PCFR employs >500 firefighters (all cross-trained as either emergency medical technicians or paramedics) in 27 stations to provide both emergency medical services (EMS) and fire suppression response. Although multiple studies have established that pathogens are present in both apparatus and stations within the fire service, there is a knowledge gap regarding the effectiveness of cleaning and disinfecting protocols in this specific setting. Methods: In total, 65 high-touch surfaces in 11 vehicles (ambulances and engines) and common areas of 2 fire stations were swabbed before and after disinfection. Vehicle surfaces swabbed included seats, cabinet doors, door handles, stretchers, medical equipment, keyboard, steering wheels, shared headsets and hand rails. Inside the stations, the refrigerator handle, television remote, radio and alarm buttons, door handles, and locker handles were swabbed. Immediately following the initial swab collection, the surfaces were disinfected with hydrogen peroxide wipes and disinfectant cleaner sprayed through an electrostatic system. The same surfaces were then swabbed after disinfection. Colony-forming units (CFUs) were quantified using standard microbiological techniques by a third-party laboratory. Statistical analysis was performed on the resulting bacterial counts using Minitab version 18.1 software. Results: We detected statistically significant decreases in total bacteria, yeast, and mold counts following implementation of this disinfection protocol. The predisinfection mean of bacteria, yeast, and mold counts for all surfaces combined was reduced 96% after disinfection (from 254,637 CFU to 9,392 CFU). Conclusions: Cleaning and disinfection of surfaces in PCFR emergency vehicles and fire station common areas with the agents described above effectively reduced contamination with bacteria, yeast, and mold spores. The PCFR has implemented this disinfection protocol as a tool in eliminating EMS vehicles and the station environment as reservoirs of infection for patients, visitors, and firefighters. Future efforts will include assessing the impact of regular cleaning and disinfection on baseline levels of bacteria, yeast, and mold spores.Funding: This study was supported by Clorox.Disclosures: None

An autonomous sensor system for monitoring mold spore contaminations inside archives at desired time intervals is presented. Presence of airborne mold spores in the indoor environment not only damages organic material but it is also a potential threat to human health. To avoid this risk a sensor system for monitoring mold spore concentrations is of great importance. In this thesis, a mold sensor system with a replaceable bioreactor array for autonomous detection of the airborne spores has been investigated. The sensor system consists of a bioreactor cartridge to analyze the mold growth, an air sampling unit for distributing the mold spores into the bioreactors and a control unit to automatize the detection process. Each bioreactor is sealed with a sacrificial silicon nitride membrane, which can be opened on demand. Once activated, the membrane gets opened and the spores present in the air sample get in contact with the culture medium and start to germinate. The mold detection is performed by using an integrated approach of impedance and colorimetric principles.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01334.]., (Copyright © 2022 Frontiers Production Office.)

Fungi are considered one of the most common allergens responsible for type I allergies. This allergic response can be triggered by inhalation of mold spores, skin contact, or ingestion of mushrooms...

Wood packing materials (WPMs) utilized by the US Department of Defense (DOD) can be constructed with a diversity of wood species depending on end use. To extend service life, these materials are treated with preservatives to protect against insects and decay fungi. Recent issues have prompted the need to include moldicide additives with these treatments. The goal of this study was to evaluate mold susceptibility across a diversity of hardwood species with the purpose of identifying representative hardwood species that would be useful in differentiating efficacy of moldicide treatments in future studies. Conditioned hardwood lumber representing groups of species listed in DOD specifications were cut to obtain 7 × 20 × 70 mm specimens. The specimens were subjected to simulated rainfall to achieve the type of wetting that might occur in service, inoculated with mold spores, placed above moist paper in Petri dishes, and given visual ratings for mold growth at 2-week intervals. The results indicate that hickory, red oak sapwood, hard maple, white ash and white oak sapwood are all highly susceptible to mold growth. Mold growth was less consistent on aspen, cottonwood, and soft maple, and varied greatly between sapwood and heartwood for yellow poplar. Hickory, hard maple and white ash may be best suited for future WPM moldicide testing because of their availability and consistent mold susceptibility.