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The perfluoalkyl substance (PFASs) perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) has been widely used in industry. However, PFOS is a persistent organic pollutant and has been gradually replaced by its short-chain analogs, perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS). PFASs are extremely persistent and are very frequently detected among the general population. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of selected PFASs on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and the mechanisms of their action. PBMCs were exposed to PFOS, PFBS and PFHxS at concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 400 μM for 24 h, they were then tested for viability, apoptosis (changes in cytosolic calcium ions level and caspase-3, -8 and -9 activation), ferroptosis (changes in chelatable iron ions level and lipid peroxidation), and autophagy (LC3-II and Raptor level assay). PFOS exposure decreased cell viability, increased calcium ion level and caspase-8 activation; it also enhanced lipid peroxidation and increased the intracellular pool of chelatable iron ions as well as LC3-II protein content. In contrast, short-chain PFBS and PFHxS induced significant changes in the markers of apoptosis but had no substantial impact on ferroptosis or autophagy markers over a wide range of concentrations. Our results indicate that only PFOS demonstrated pro-ferroptotic and pro-autophagic potential but observed changes occurred at relatively high exposure. A short-chain substitute (PFBS) exhibited strong pro-apoptotic potential at concentrations related to occupational exposure. While the short-chain PFASs strongly affected the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, apoptosis itself was only induced by PFBS via the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. It seems that the length of the carbon chain in PFASs appears to determine the cell death mechanisms activated in human PBMCs following exposure. Our findings provide a new insight into the immune toxicity mechanism induced by these compounds., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Glyphosate in the concentrations corresponding to environmental or occupational exposure has been shown to induce epigenetic changes potentially involved in carcinogenesis. This substance (1) changes the global methylation in various cell types and organisms and is responsible for the methylation of different promoters of individual genes, such as TP53 and P21 in human PBMCs, (2) decreases H3K27me3 methylation and H3 acetylation and increases H3K9 methylation and H4 acetylation in rats, (3) increases the expression of P16, P21, CCND1 in human PBMCs, and the expression of EGR1, JUN, FOS, and MYC in HEK293 cells, but decreases TP53 expression in human PBMCs, (4) changes the expression of genes DNMT1, HDAC3, TET1, TET2, TET3 involved in chromatin architecture, e.g. in fish Japanese medaka, (5) alters the expression of various small, single-stranded, non-coding RNA molecules engaged in post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression, such as miRNA 182-5p in MCF10A cells, miR-30 and miR-10 in mammalian stem cells, as well as several dozen of murine miRNAs. Epigenetic changes caused by glyphosate can persist over time and can be passed on to the offsprings in the next generation; in the third generation they can result in some disorders development, such as prostate disease or obesity. Some epigenetic mechanisms have indicated a potential risk of breast cancer development in human as a result of the exposure to glyphosate. It should be emphasized that the majority of reported epigenetic changes have not yet been associated with the final metabolic effects, which may depend on many other factors., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Benzo[ a ]pyrene (B[ a ]P) is the main representative of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and has been repeatedly found in the air, surface water, soil, and sediments. It is present in cigarette smoke as well as in food products, especially when smoked and grilled. Human exposure to B[ a ]P is therefore common. Research shows growing evidence concerning toxic effects induced by this substance. This xenobiotic is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP P450) to carcinogenic metabolite: 7β,8α-dihydroxy-9α,10α-epoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[ a ]pyrene (BPDE), which creates DNA adducts, causing mutations and malignant transformations. Moreover, B[ a ]P is epigenotoxic, neurotoxic, and teratogenic, and exhibits pro-oxidative potential and causes impairment of animals' fertility. CYP P450 is strongly involved in B[ a ]P metabolism, and it is simultaneously expressed as a result of the association of B[ a ]P with aromatic hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), playing an essential role in the cancerogenic potential of various xenobiotics. In turn, polymorphism of CYP P450 genes determines the sensitivity of the organism to B[ a ]P. It was also observed that B[ a ]P facilitates the multiplication of viruses, which may be an additional problem with the widespread COVID-19 pandemic. Based on publications mainly from 2017 to 2022, this paper presents the occurrence of B[ a ]P in various environmental compartments and human surroundings, shows the exposure of humans to this substance, and describes the mechanisms of its toxicity.

Bromophenolic flame retardants (BFRs) are a large group of synthetic substances used in the industry in order to reduce the flammability of synthetic materials used in electrical and electronic devices, textiles, furniture and other everyday products. The presence of BFRs has been documented in the environment, food, drinking water, inhaled dust and the human body. Due to the widespread exposure of the general population to BFRs and insufficient knowledge on their toxic action, including genotoxic potential, we have compared the effect of tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), tetrabromobisphenol S (TBBPS), 2,4,6,-tribromophenol (2,4,6-TBP) and pentabromophenol (PBP) on DNA damage in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) (playing a crucial role in the immune system) as well as examined underlying mechanism of action of these substances. The cells were incubated for 24 h with studied compounds in the concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 µg/mL. The study has shown that examined BFRs induced single and, to a lesser extent, double strand-breaks formation and caused oxidative damage to pyrimidines, and particularly to purines in the incubated cells. PBMCs efficiently repaired the DNA strand-breaks induced by BFRs, but they were unable to remove completely damaged DNA (except cells treated with TBBPS). The greatest changes in the above-mentioned parameters were observed in cells incubated with TBBPA, while the smallest in PBMCs treated with TBBPS. The results have also revealed that tested compounds do not form adducts with DNA in PBMCs, while the observed changes were the most probably induced by indirect DNA-damaging agents, such as ROS and other reactive species., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Barańska, Woźniak, Mokra and Michałowicz.)

Endocrine disruptors are a group of chemical compounds that, even in low concentrations, cause a hormonal imbalance in the body, contributing to the development of various harmful health disorders. Many industry compounds, due to their important commercial value and numerous applications, are produced on a global scale, while the mechanism of their endocrine action has not been fully understood. In recent years, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have gained the interest of major international health organizations, and thus more and more studies have been aimed to explain the toxicity of these compounds. PFASs were firstly synthesized in the 1950s and broadly used in the industry in the production of firefighting agents, cosmetics and herbicides. The numerous industrial applications of PFASs, combined with the exceptionally long half-life of these substances in the human body and extreme environmental persistence, result in a common and chronic exposure of the general population to their action. Available data have suggested that human exposure to PFASs can occur during different stages of development and may cause short- or/and long-term health effects. This paper synthetizes the current literature reports on the presence, bioaccumulation and, particularly, endocrine toxicity of selected long- and short-chain PFASs, with a special emphasis on the mechanisms underlying their endocrine actions.

The human genome is persistently exposed to damage caused by xenobiotics, therefore the assessment of genotoxicity of substances having a direct contact with humans is of importance. Phthalates are commonly used in industrial applications. Widespread exposure to phthalates has been evidenced by their presence in human body fluids. We have assessed the genotoxic potential of selected phthalates and mechanism of their action in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Studied cells were incubated with di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP) and their metabolites: mono-n-butylphthalate (MBP), mono-benzylphthalate (MBzP) in the concentrations range of 0.1-10 µg/mL for 24 h. Analyzed compounds induced DNA single and double strand-breaks (DBP and BBP ≥ 0.5 µg/mL, MBP and MBzP ≥ 1 µg/mL) and more strongly oxidized purines than pyrimidines. None of the compounds examined was capable of creating adducts with DNA. All studied phthalates caused an increase of total ROS level, while hydroxyl radical was generated mostly by DBP and BBP. PBMCs exposed to DBP and BBP could not completely repair DNA strand-breaks during 120 min of postincubation, in opposite to damage caused by their metabolites, MBP and MBzP. We have concluded that parent phthalates: DBP and BBP caused more pronounced DNA damage compared to their metabolites.

Aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) is a primary metabolite of glyphosate and amino-polyphosphonate. We have determined the effect of AMPA on selected epigenetic parameters and major cell cycle drivers in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The cells were incubated with AMPA at 0.5, 10 and 250 μM for 24 h. The performed analysis included: global DNA methylation by colorimetric measurement of 5-methylcytosine in DNA, methylation in the promoter regions of selected tumor suppressor genes (P16, P21, TP53) and proto-oncogenes (BCL2, CCND1) as well as the expression profile of the indicated genes by Real-Time PCR assays. The obtained results have revealed significant reduction of global DNA methylation level in PBMCs exposed to AMPA. Investigated xenobiotic changed methylation pattern of the P21 and TP53 suppressor gene promoters, but in case of other analyzed genes: P16, BCL2 and CCND1 no statistically significant changes have been noted. Gene profiling have shown that AMPA only changed the expression of CCND1. Summing up, our results have revealed a small potential disturbance in methylation processes and the absence of changes in expression of tested tumor suppressor genes (P16, P21, TP53) and protooncogenes (BCL2) in human PBMCs exposed to AMPA., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Phosphorus flame retardants are a group of chemicals that are used to slow or prevent the spread of fire. These compounds have been detected in different environments including human organism. In the present study, we have investigated DNA-damaging potential and effect on DNA methylation of tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP) and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCPP) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). In order to determine DNA damage and repair, the alkaline and neutral versions of the comet assay were used. The level of DNA methylation was determined with specific antibodies against methylated DNA. PBMCs were exposed to TCEP and TCPP at the concentrations in the range of 1-1000 µM for 24 h. We have observed that TCEP and TCPP induced DNA damage-DNA breaks and alkali-labile sites. All DNA damages were effectively repaired during 120-min repair incubation. The results have also shown that TCEP and TCPP decreased the level of DNA methylation in PBMCs. In the case of TCEP, this effect was observed at a very low concentration of 1 µM.

Numerous research works have shown that synthesis of pesticides leads to the formation of impurities that may substantially enhance pesticide toxicity. In this study, the effect of manufacturing impurities of pesticide bromfenvinphos (BFVF) such as 1-bromo-2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-ethoxy ethene (BDCEE) and diethyl [2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2-oxo-ethyl] phosphonate (β-ketophosphonate) on human erythrocytes, being significantly exposed to xenobiotics has been studied. The cells were treated with the compounds studied in the concentrations ranging from 0.1 μM to 250 μM for 4 h. In order to assess the effect of BDCEE and β-ketophosphonate on red blood cells hemolytic changes, changes in cell size (FSC parameter) and oxidation of hemoglobin were studied. Moreover, alterations in reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, reduced glutathione (GSH) level and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity were determined. BDCEE induced an increase in ROS level and caused strong oxidation of hemoglobin as well as a slight change in erythrocytes size and hemolysis, while it did not change GSH level and AChE activity. β-ketophosphonate has not been shown to affect most parameters studied, but it strongly reduced AChE activity. Because changes in the parameters examined were noted at low concentrations of BFVF impurities (5-250 µM), those substances should not negatively affect on red blood cells of humans environmentally exposed to this pesticide.

Phenol and chlorinated phenols are widely spread in the environment and human surrounding, which leads to a common environmental and occupational exposure of humans to these substances. The aim of this study was to assess eryptotic changes in human red blood cells treated with phenol, 2,4-dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) and pentachlorophenol (PCP). The erythrocytes were incubated with phenols studied in the concentrations ranging from 1 to 100 μg/mL for 24 h or 48 h. The results of the study revealed that all compounds studied caused phosphatidylserine translocation and increased cytosolic calcium ions level in human erythrocytes. It was also noticed that phenol and chlorophenols caused an increase in caspase-3 and calpain activation, which confirmed that they were capable of inducing suicidal death of erythrocytes. The results also revealed that PCP most strongly altered the parameters studied, while phenol exhibited the weakest eryptotic potential in the incubated cells., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Because bisphenol A (BPA) and some of its analogs have been supposed to influence development of cancer, we have assessed the effect of BPA, bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) on DNA bases oxidation, which is a key process in cancer initiation. The analysis was conducted on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), which are very useful model to assess genotoxic potential of various toxicants in different cell types. In order to determine oxidative damage to DNA pyrimidines and purines, alkaline version of the comet assay with DNA glycosylases, i.e. endonuclease III (Nth) and human 8-oxoguanine DNA glycosylase (hOGG1) was used. PBMCs were exposed to BPA or its analogs in the concentrations of 0.01, 0.1 and 1 μg/mL for 4 h and 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 μg/mL for 48 h. We have observed that BPA, BPS, BPF and particularly BPAF caused oxidative damage to DNA pyrimidines and more strongly to purines in human PBMCs. The results have also shown that BPS, which is the most commonly used as a substitute for BPA in the manufacture induced definitely the smallest oxidative DNA bases lesions in PBMCs. Moreover, we have noticed that BPA, BPF and BPAF caused DNA damage at very low concentration of 1 ng/mL., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In the present study, we have investigated DNA-damaging potential of BPA and its analogs, i.e. bisphenol S (BPS), bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) using the alkaline and neutral versions of the comet assay, which allowed to evaluate DNA single strand-breaks (SSBs) and double strand-breaks (DSBs). The use of the alkaline version of comet assay made also possible to analyze the kinetics of DNA repair in PBMCs after exposure of the cells to BPA or its analogs. We have observed an increase in DNA damage in PBMCs treated with BPA or its analogs in the concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 μg/ml after 1 and 4 h incubation. It was noted that bisphenols studied caused DNA damage mainly via SSBs, while DNA fragmentation via double DSBs was low. The strongest changes in DNA damage were provoked by BPA and particularly BPAF, which were capable of inducing SSBs even at 0.01 μg/ml, while BPS caused the lowest changes (only at 10 μg/ml). We have also observed that PBMCs significantly repaired bisphenols-induced DNA damage but they were unable (excluding cells treated with BPS) to repair totally DNA breaks., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, the effect of monochloroacetic acid (MCAA), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), monobromoacetic acid (MBAA) and dibromoacetic acid (DBAA) on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was assessed. HAAs studied induced at millimolar concentrations necrotic alterations in PBMCs with the strongest effect noted for MBAA and DBAA. Chloro- and bromoacetic acids also provoked changes in PBMCs morphology because they caused a strong decrease in cell size (particularly DCAA and DBAA) and increase in cell granulation (mainly MBAA and DBAA). All HAAs studied, and DCAA and DBAA in particular (at lower concentrations than those, which caused necrosis) induced apoptotic changes, which was confirmed by analysis of alterations in cell membrane permeability and caspase 8, 9 and 3 activation. Moreover, HAAs examined (mainly dihalogenated acids) strongly increased transmembrane mitochondrial potential and enhanced ROS (mainly hydroxyl radical) formation, which was possibly associated with apoptotic changes provoked by those substances. The results showed that DBAA exhibited the strongest effects on PBMCs., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Few studies have addressed the cellular effects of bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) on cells, and no study has been conducted to analyze the mechanism of action of bisphenols in blood cells. In this study, the effect of bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF), BPS and BPAF on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was analyzed. It was shown that BPA, BPF and BPAF in particular, decreased cell viability, which was associated with depletion of intracellular ATP level and alterations in PBMCs size and granulation. Bisphenols enhanced ROS (including OH˙) formation, which led to damage to lipids and proteins in PBMCs. The most significant alterations in ROS level were induced by BPF, and particularly BPAF. Moreover, it was shown that BPAF most strongly provoked lipid peroxidation, while BPA and BPS caused the greatest damage to proteins. It may be concluded that BPA and its analogs were capable of inducing oxidative stress and damage in PBMCs in the concentrations ranging from 0.06 to 0.5 μM (0.02-0.1 μg/ml), which may be present in human blood as a result of environmental exposure. Although, most of bisphenols studied decreased cell viability, size and ATP level at higher concentrations, BPAF exhibited its cytotoxic potential at low concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3 μM (0.1-1.0 μg/ml) that may correspond to concentrations in humans following occupational exposure., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

There are only a few studies that have assessed the effect of bisphenol A (BPA) on human blood cells and no study has been conducted to analyze the impact of BPA analogs on human leucocytes. In this study, we have investigated the effect of BPA and its analogs like bisphenol F (BPF), bisphenol S (BPS) and bisphenol AF (BPAF) on apoptosis induction in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). In order to clarify the mechanism of bisphenols-induced programmed cell death, changes in various signaling molecules of this process have been assessed. We observed an increase in cytosolic calcium ions (Ca(2+)) level and reduction of transmembrane mitochondrial potential (ΔΨm) in PBMCs incubated with all compounds examined, and particularly BPA and BPAF. All compounds studied changed PBMCs membrane permeability, activated caspase-8, -9, -3 and induced PARP-1 cleavage and chromatin condensation, which confirmed that they were capable of inducing apoptosis both via intrinsic and extrinsic pathway. Moreover, we have found that modus operandi of bisphenols studied was different. We noticed that BPAF and BPS caused mainly necrotic and apoptotic changes, respectively, whereas BPA induced comparable apoptotic and necrotic effects in the incubated cells., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In this study, we have assessed apoptotic effect of 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, hexachlorobenzene, lindane and dieldrin on human peripheral blood lymphocytes. We observed an increase in ROS formation and a decrease in mitochondrial transmembrane potential in the cells incubated with low concentrations of all compounds studied, in particular lindane and dieldrin. ROS formation and changes in mitochondrial transmembrane potential may have influenced caspase-3 activation, a crucial enzyme in the apoptotic process. Moreover, chlorobenzenes, and in particular lindane and dieldrin changed cells' membrane permeability and induced phosphatidylserine translocation, which confirmed that they are capable of inducing apoptosis in human lymphocytes. Apoptotic changes in human lymphocytes provoked by biologically relevant concentrations of these substances suggest that they may disturb function of immunological system especially among people occupationally exposed to their action., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)