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Students with emotional or behavioral disorders (EBD) perform academically below their peers. One area of particular challenge is written expression. Using a multiple-probe design across participants, this study evaluated the effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on the writing skills of three students with EBD, ages 11–14. The researchers used GO 4 IT . . . NOW strategy instruction to teach students to write paragraphs in the context of their individualized education programs; in particular, students learned to write goals and objectives related to their self-identified academic and nonacademic needs. Researchers taught 19 GO 4 IT . . . NOW! lessons in a one-on-one format; lessons included explicit strategy instruction, feedback, self-evaluation, and practice with revising paragraphs. Results indicate a functional relation between GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction and improved expository and IEP goal paragraphs. Students maintained gains into the following school year. Social validity, limitations, and future directions are discussed.

A modified version of the Student Success Skills (SSS) curriculum, designed to help address the need for intervention in executive functioning skills, metacognition skills, and social skills, was offered to a small group of students in eighth grade who were identified with learning disabilities to positively impact their learning strategies and knowledge. The purpose of this pilot study was to measure the effects of this modified version of SSS on students’ (a) skills and behaviors associated with improved school performance; (b) generalization of those skills to scenarios; and (c) school-related outcomes, including a teacher report. The study design applied a single subject multiple probe across students. The primary dependent variable measured in this study was the number of school-success-related skills and strategies students identified. Findings suggest a functional relation between the modified version of SSS and participants’ ability to name skills and behaviors associated with school success. The findings of the current study, as a collaboration with school counselors and special educators, provide a first step towards illustrating the impact of a modified SSS intervention with students with IEPs. Students reported enjoying and learning from the lessons.

Despite the requirement that teachers implement evidence-based instruction in their classrooms, a significant research-to-practice gap persists. Far too often, teachers resort to quick fixes found through online searches or rely on conventional wisdom to make instructional decisions. This is no surprise as identifying evidence-based interventions can be time-consuming, overwhelming, and confusing. Indeed, claims of practices being evidence based are ubiquitous, even for practices that clearly lack evidence to support their efficacy. In addition, once an evidence-based practice is selected, the process for implementing it and evaluating its effectiveness can be an additional challenge. The purposes of this article are to distinguish between an evidence-based practice as an instructional strategy and evidence-based education as a problem-solving process and to assist teachers in identifying, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based practices in their classrooms.

Self-questioning, a strategic approach for monitoring one's own comprehension, has shown promising outcomes for a diverse range of learners. The current study sought to replicate and extend this area of research by examining the effects of a small-group self-questioning intervention with systematic prompt fading on students' reading comprehension performance. Two small groups of fifth grade students performing among the lowest on reading comprehension in their general education classroom were selected to participate in this study. Three participants in each group were taught to stop to ask and respond to questions (STAR strategy) while chorally reading expository text passages. A multiple probe design across the small groups was used to examine the effects of this self-questioning strategy on the reading comprehension performance when prompts were systematically faded. Results indicated the groups, on average, demonstrated an increase in the number of comprehension questions answered correctly. Implications for practice are discussed.

This study sought to examine the effectiveness of Reading RACES (RR), a computer program designed to deliver a repeated reading intervention with culturally relevant passages. Specifically, this study examined the effects of RR on the oral reading fluency (ORF) and comprehension gains for first-grade learners in an urban setting and whether these gains would generalize to novel, generic passages. Five first-grade African American students at risk for reading failure were selected to participate in this study. Results indicated a functional relation between the use of RR and student gains in ORF and comprehension. All students who participated in this study demonstrated moderate to substantial gains on their ORF and comprehension on practiced passages. In addition, the data showed reading skills generalized to novel passages and maintained even 1 month following intervention. These findings extend the previous research base for RR. Limitations and future implications will be discussed.

Vocabulary knowledge is an important foundation skill for reading across all subject areas. Because students with disabilities lag behind their peers in reading skills, there is a need for efficient and effective vocabulary interventions. Focusing on morpheme knowledge is one efficient approach to building vocabulary. This article describes an intervention package that combines several evidence-based techniques, including explicit instruction, fluency drills, self-graphing, and peer mediation, to increase morpheme knowledge.

This study examined the effects of behavioral skills training (BST) on teachers' implementation fidelity of a reading racetrack (a board game designed to increase sight word fluency) with elementary students identified as struggling readers. BST, an alternative to traditional professional development, is a performance-based protocol incorporating instruction, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback. A multiple probe design across teacher-student dyads demonstrated that BST was functionally related to the teachers' implementation of a reading racetrack with 100% fidelity on at least three consecutive sessions. Additionally, students met mastery criteria for sight word acquisition and demonstrated maintenance at least one to two weeks post intervention.

Students with disabilities trail behind their peers without disabilities while in school, as well as in post-secondary outcome areas. Given that self-determination and enhanced academic skills are associated with improved post-school outcomes, one possible solution is to identify interventions that teach self-determination and academic skills simultaneously. This study investigated the effects of GO 4 IT . . . NOW! strategy instruction on expository writing skills of five high school students with low-incidence disabilities. Using a multiple-probe-across-participants design, the authors measured the effects of strategy instruction on quality of expository paragraphs and quality and content of individualized education program (IEP) goal paragraphs. Results indicated a functional relation between the intervention and improved paragraph writing. Limitations, suggestions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.

Annual goals that are composed of short-term learning targets serve as stepping stones toward mastering the ultimate goal. This chapter discusses considerations that influence selection of learning goals, including grade-level standards, student assessment data, individualized education programs (IEPs), and research-based instructional priorities within academic disciplines. It describes a process for identifying instructional goals that are aligned with grade-level standards and individual needs. The chapter identifies considerations that influence selection of learning goals. It describes instructional and individualized priorities across academic content areas. The chapter also describes a process for identifying instructional goals that are aligned with grade-level standards and individual needs. It assists teachers in finding the balance between the general curriculum standards and the individual needs of their students. The chapter provides guidance and examples of deconstructed standards as well as resources for teaching to the standards. Developing long-term and short-term goals based on prioritized knowledge and skills serves as a foundation for robust instructional design.

This chapter focuses on three critical elements of instruction: clear instructional goals, logical sequencing of knowledge and skills, and teaching students to organize content. It describes the importance and characteristics of clear learning goals. The chapter examines elements of instructional design that help teachers prioritize and sequence learning goals. It also describes strategies teachers can use to help students make connections. The chapter provides more detail about graphic organizers that may be used to help students organize content. It focuses on what teachers should do in between identifying instructional priorities and teaching those priorities to their students. Clear learning goals help teachers know what to teach and assess, students understand what they are expected to learn, and parents better understand student progress to become more engaged in student learning. The most strategically, systematically sequenced instruction will require adjustments to meet the needs of all learners.

This study examined the effects of a reading racetrack game on acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of sight words for four kindergarten students who are deaf. The game consisted of placing sight words around a racetrack board and prompting the participant to read the words. A multiple probe design across word sets demonstrated a functional relation between the intervention and the participants' acquisition of vocabulary to 100% mastery on at least three consecutive sessions for each participant. Three out of four participants maintained most of the sight words acquired for 2-4 weeks after intervention and generalized reading the words to another presentation format.

Early literacy skills are critical for success in school, yet many children fail to obtain these skills in a timely manner leaving them unable to perform at minimal academic expectations. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of word box instruction, a research-based intervention designed to promote phonemic awareness, on the phonological, reading, and spelling skills of three kindergartners. A multiple probe design across the three skills was sequentially replicated across students to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Results demonstrated a functional relation between the word box instruction and increases in all three students’ segmenting skills and letter–sound correspondences, along with demonstrated improvements in spelling and reading.

This study compared the reading gains of Kindergarten students who were at risk for reading failure who were taught with either a structured supplemental reading program or with teacher-designed or teacher-selected instruction. The authors used a quasi-experimental design with preexisting groups to examine changes from pretest to posttest. Although both programs were effective in producing statistically significant improvements in word attack and phonemic awareness skills, results revealed a pattern of moderate differences favoring a structured supplemental program called the Early Reading Tutor. Furthermore, anecdotal information from questionnaires suggested that participating tutors who used Early Reading Tutor would recommend it to others and considered it an effective yet simple program to implement.

The ongoing collection and documentation of evidence of students’ performance in the classroom is a fundamental component of formative instructional practices, essential for ensuring student success. Multiple methods of collecting and documenting evidence of students’ academic performance in the classroom are described. These methods include direct behavioral observations, evaluation rubrics, recording devices, general curriculum-based outcome measures, goal attainment scaling, and graphing performance. A discussion of how teachers can use data derived from these assessment methods to make instructional decision is provided.

With many states adopting new standards and evaluation systems, teachers must adopt effective instructional strategies and assessment methods aligned to the rigor of new standards and assessments. One way to improve student achievement is through supporting student ownership of learning, a core component of formative instructional practices. Teaching students to take an active role in their learning can benefit students by promoting student goal setting, self-assessment, and self-determination. As students become meaningfully engaged in their learning, they gain a better understanding of learning targets, how to collect and document evidence of their learning, and how to evaluate and clarify additional learning needs, leading to the ultimate goal of improving student achievement. This article (a) describes how promoting student ownership benefits students, (b) identifies some evidence-based practices that promote student ownership of learning, and (c) illustrates the important role student ownership plays in formative instructional practices.

Feedback provides a vehicle for integrating all components of formative instructional practices: clear learning targets, evidence of student learning, and student ownership in the process. Feedback is the keystone to formative instructional practices as it is one of the most powerful instructional tools available. This paper (a) describes the role feedback plays in formative instructional practices, (b) suggests some evidence-based instructional strategies practitioners can employ to increase opportunities for feedback about their instruction, and (c) recommends ways to enhance the effectiveness of the feedback students receive.

With many states moving toward increased accountability for all teachers, special educators, who have long been held accountable through the implementation of individualized education programs and the use of evidence-based practices, have much to offer. Formative instructional practices are evidence-based techniques that are familiar to special educators and can be implemented in classrooms filled with students of all skill and ability levels. Formative instructional practices are the way that teachers and students document evidence of student learning and make instructional decisions based on that evidence. These effective and versatile practices help teachers continuously assess their students, make data-based decisions, and ensure optimal learning. This article suggests that special educators are well positioned to make an important contribution as schools adopt more rigorous standards and the formative instructional practices necessary to guide students to mastery of these standards. An overview of these practices is provided.

As more states adopt the Common Core State Standards, teachers face new challenges. Teachers must unpack these standards and develop explicit learning targets to make these rigorous standards accessible to their students. This task can be especially challenging for special educators who must balance standards-based education with individualized instruction. This paper describes the value of clarifying learning targets, defines different types of targets, and provides strategies and resources to assist practitioners in unpacking standards to develop learning targets. In addition, the authors suggest how the standards can be used to drive individualized education program planning to maximize learning for students with disabilities and increase the likelihood of student success.

Cover-copy-compare is a practical, low-cost, effective strategy for teachers to add to their repertoires of evidence-based practices. This article describes the cover-copy-compare strategy and how it can be applied to teach both self-management and basic academic skills. A variety of ways this strategy can be used across content areas are suggested along with ideas for how teachers can maximize their use of the strategy.

The authors compared the effects of two sight word fluency drills (i.e., reading racetrack and list drills). They used a repeated acquisition design across 8 second-grade students identified as at risk for reading difficulties. More participants performed better when they read words on the reading racetrack than on the list; however, results were mixed. The study also showed that the participants preferred the reading racetrack over the list. Findings indicate that teachers should consider using the racetrack drill as part of supplemental reading instruction, particularly when student motivation is a factor. Suggestions for practice and future research are discussed.

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2011 in other professional journals. The 27 articles included descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual papers, and practitioner pieces. All areas of Kohler’s Taxonomy for Transition Programming were addressed: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

Although vocabulary plays an important role in literacy and content instruction, there is a paucity of research identifying effective methods for teaching vocabulary. One promising strategy is morphemic analysis, which involves breaking words into morphemes, the smallest meaningful parts of words, and teaching students the meanings of those parts. The current study used a multiple probe across morphemes experimental design to determine the effects of an intervention package, GO FASTER (Graphic Organizers; Flashcards Added up and Self-graphed to Track progress; Errors Reviewed). Findings showed that with three to four instructional sessions, three high school students with high-incidence disabilities successfully defined morphemes at a predetermined fluency rate and generalized these definitions to untaught words. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) often struggle with spelling. Research shows this population benefits from self-management interventions, structured practice opportunities, and immediate feedback—all components of the copy-cover-compare strategy. This empirical investigation used a multiple-baseline experimental design to determine the effects of the copy-cover-compare strategy on acquisition, generalization, and maintenance of spelling words for four students with ADHD in Grades 1 through 3. Results showed a functional relation between copy-cover-compare and mastery, maintenance, and generalization of three sets of spelling words for each student. Limitations, implications for practice, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Studies that examined copy-cover-compare (CCC) and variations of this procedure were reviewed and analyzed. This review revealed a substantial number of studies that validated the use of CCC across spelling and math skills and across students with and without disabilities. A meta-analysis of findings indicated that CCC and variations of this procedure were effective for helping students acquire and become fluent in academic skills. The strongest effects were evident when CCC and variations of this procedure were combined with other evidence-based instructional components. Limitations, future directions for research, and recommendations for practice are offered. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2010 in other professional journals. The 64 articles included descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual articles, and practitioner pieces. Addressed were all areas of Kohler’s (1996) taxonomy for transition programming: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

Even evidence-based instructional methods may not be sufficient for closing achievement gaps. If teachers are not maximizing instructional time, achievement gaps are likely to widen over time; therefore, instruction need not only be effective but efficient as well. The purposes of this article are to (a) provide practitioners with a broad definition of instructional efficiency and (b) describe several considerations for increasing efficiency in the classroom. Suggestions are made for planning, delivering, and evaluating instruction.

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2009 in other professional journals. The 63 articles include descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual articles, and practitioner pieces. All areas of Kohler’s taxonomy for transition programming were addressed: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

Taking notes from lectures or reading material can be challenging, especially for those who have learning disabilities. An alternative to traditional note-taking is a method called guided notes, which has been found to improve the accuracy of students’ notes, increase the frequency of student responses, and improve students’ quiz and test performance. Additionally, research has revealed that students prefer to use guided notes over taking their own notes or using preprinted notes. The purpose of this article is to provide teachers with several suggestions for creating and using guided notes to enhance other effective teaching methods, support students’ studying, and promote higher order thinking.

This column provides brief summaries of transition-related articles published in 2008 in other professional journals. The 70 articles included descriptive, experimental, and qualitative research as well as program descriptions, conceptual papers, and practitioner pieces. All areas of Kohler’s (1996) Kohler, P. D. (1996). Preparing youth with disabilities for future challenges: A taxonomy for transition programming. In P. D. Kohler (Ed.), Taxonomy for transition programming: Linking research and practice (pp. 1-62). Champaign, IL: Transition Research Institute. Taxonomy for Transition Programming were addressed: family involvement, interagency collaboration, program structure, student development, and student-focused planning.

The purpose of this review was to identify effective methods for teaching writing to students with intellectual disabilities. After criteria were established, database searches and hand searches of selected peer-reviewed journals were conducted. Findings revealed a relatively small number of studies that met the criteria for inclusion. Participants, settings, research designs, independent variables, dependent variables, and results are synthesized across studies. Writing instruction effects on various written expression outcomes were aggregated by averaging percentage of non-overlapping data (PND) across studies. Findings revealed that strategy instruction was investigated more frequently than other types of approaches. Strategy instruction was consistently found to be very effective for teaching writing skills to students with intellectual disabilities. Limitations, directions for future research, and implications for practice are discussed.

Research indicates that student achievement improves when teachers provide opportunities for active engagement. Guided notes have been suggested as a way to increase active student responding during teacher-directed lectures. The purpose of this review was to summarize research on the effectiveness of guided notes. Specifically, we sought to synthesize the research examining (a) the effectiveness of guided notes on various outcome variables and across different ages, (b) procedural variations in guided notes implementation, and (c) the social validity of guided notes. Results indicated that guided notes are an effective and socially valid method for increasing note-taking accuracy and improving academic performance, particularly for school-age students. Recommendations are made for everyday classroom practice and for future research.

Vacations may have detrimental effects on maths and spelling performance, but the findings for reading are less conclusive. The purpose of this study was to analyse the effects of summer vacation on early literacy skills of young children. Participants included rising first and second-graders, most of whom were at-risk, struggling readers. No evidence of summer setback was evident for this sample of children; in fact, gains in reading (or, recoupment of any losses) were more common in children performing at lower levels than for those with higher scores at the end of the school year. Our outcomes are different from those reported by other researchers. We explain this with attention to the content of our comparisons, the grade levels investigated and measures used to assess performance, and discuss implications for future research based on our findings.