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In recent years, many efforts have been made to epoxidize palm oil in response to rising demand for environmentally safe epoxides that generated from vegetable oils. This experiment has studied two methods: the one-step method (continuous epoxidation-hydroxylation) and the two-step method (a separate process of epoxidation followed by hydroxylation) for bio-polyol production. Based on the results of the experiment, the one-step technique experiment was deemed to be the best approach because it did not require for the process to be stopped and because it is a continuous process, it takes less time to manufacture the bio-polyol and costs less because the catalyst is only used once. The relative conversion to oxirane (RCO) percentage was at its maximum (82%) after 30 min of epoxidation reaction. FTIR spectroscopy shows the absorption peak at a wavelength of 3300 cm−1 indicates the presence of hydroxyl groups when polyol was analyzed. Overall, a polyol with a high yield was successfully produced from palm oleic acid by using continuous hydroxylation of epoxidized oleic acid.

Background: Greener epoxidation by using vegetable oil to create an eco-friendly epoxide is being studied because it is a more cost-effective and environmentally friendly commodity that is safer than non-renewable materials. The aim of this research is to come up with low-cost solutions for banana trunk acoustic panels with kinetic modelling of epoxy-based palm oil. Method: In this study, the epoxidation of palm oleic acid was carried out by in situ performic acid to produce epoxidized palm oleic acid. Results: Banana trunk acoustic panel was successfully innovated based on the performance when the epoxy was applied. Lastly, a mathematical model was developed by using the numerical integration of the 4th order Runge-Kutta method, and the results showed that there is a good agreement between the simulation and experimental data, which validates the kinetic model. Conclusion: Overall, the peracid mechanism was effective in producing a high yield of epoxy from palm oleic acid that is useful for the improvement of acoustic panels based on the banana trunk.

Background: The world’s raw material consumption has shifted from the use nonrenewable materials to renewable materials. Method: In this study, the epoxidation of palm oleic acid was carried out by in situ performic acid to produce epoxidized palm oleic acid. Since the epoxide ring is highly reactive, the degradation of the oxirane was examined by using hydrogen peroxide, formic acid, and water. Results: A mathematical model was developed by using the numerical integration of the 4th order Runge-Kutta method and the results showed that there is a good agreement between the simulation and experimental data, validating the kinetic model. As a result, the degradation is highly effective in acidic conditions such as hydrogen peroxide and formic acid, which leads to the formation of side products such as diol and α-glycol. The kinetic rate (k) parameters obtained by using ode45 function in MATLAB software is k11= 6.6442, k12= 7.0185, k2= 0.1026, for epoxidation of palm oleic acid, and k3 = 0.0347, k4= 0.0154, k5= 0.142, in degradation process. Conclusion: The minimum error of the simulation is 0.17311.

In recent years, research on the epoxidation of fatty acids has attracted a great deal of attention due to the increased need for eco-friendly epoxides generated from vegetable oils. The purpose of this research is to produce bio-lubricant from optimized epoxidized oleic acid by alcoholysis with methanol, tert-butyl alcohol, and ethanolamine. Epoxidation is carried out using in situ performic acid formation under a constant temperature of 60 °C where formic acid acts as an oxygen carrier and hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxygen donor. The determination of the optimum process parameters uses one factor at a time (OFAT) method and is based on the optimized process parameters until the maximum relative conversion to oxirane of 65% is achieved. The bio-lubricants are confirmed using the Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis and the results show that the hydroxyl group is present at 3400 cm−1 of wavenumber. A kinetic modeling is performed using the MATLAB optimization tool. After 100 iterations, the reaction rate constant based on optimized epoxidized dated palm oil production were obtained as follows: k 11 = 0.4251 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1, k 12 = 11.345 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1, and k 2 = 0.6761 mol⋅L−1⋅min−1.

Objective:: Rice husk has attracted considerable attention in recent years due to its chemical components that are beneficial for a wide range of applications. In this paper, silica aerogel from Rice Husk Ash (RHA) was prepared through sol-gel processing and ambient pressure drying. Methods:: The silica RHA was extracted with sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium silicate solution and neutralized with sulphuric acid to form silica gel. Then, the silica aerogel was further modified with an amine, 3-(aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES), because amine groups provide specific adsorption sides for CO2 adsorption. The functional group, surface morphology, and elemental composition of rice husk, silica aerogel, and modified silica aerogel were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electronic Microscopy (SEM) and Elemental Analysis (EA). Results:: For amine-modified silica aerogel, it was found that the sample consists of N-H band at a certain peak. FTIR and SEM analysis revealed that the synthesized silica aerogel has fibrous morphology and indicates a similar trend with previous researches. The aminemodified silica aerogel (AMSA) is able to adsorb 0.88 mol CO2/kg AMSA. Concluson:: This study shows that the rice husk silica aerogel modified with APTES could enhance the CO2 adsorption performance due to the physisorption and chemisorption.

In recent years, studies related to the epoxidation of fatty acids have garnered much interest due to the rising demand for eco-friendly epoxides derived from vegetable oils. From the epoxidation reaction, there is a side reaction involving epoxide and water. This reaction produces a by-product – dihydroxystearic acid (C18H36O4, DHSA). DHSA is one of the chemical precursors in the production of cosmetic products. Therefore, a kinetic model was developed to determine the optimised epoxidation process and concentration of DHSA, where each of the reactions was identified. The kinetic rate, k parameters obtained were: k11 = 6.6442, k12 = 11.0185, k21 = 0.1026 for epoxidation palm oleic acid, and k41 = 0.0021, k51 = 0.0142 in degradation process. The minimum error of the simulation was 0.0937. In addition, DHSA yield optimisation was done through Taguchi method, and the optimum conditions obtained were H2O2/oleic acid – OA unsaturation molar ratio 1 : 1 (level 2), formic acid – FA/OA unsaturation molar ratio 0.5 : 1 (level 1), temperature 35 °C (level 1), and agitation speed 100 rpm (level 1). A high yield of DHSA can be achieved under these conditions. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License., Posljednjih godina studije povezane s epoksidacijom masnih kiselina izazvale su veliko zanimanje zbog sve veće potražnje za ekološki prihvatljivim epoksidima dobivenim iz biljnih ulja. Iz reakcije epoksidacije dolazi do nuspojave koja uključuje epoksid i vodu. Tom reakcijom nastaje nusproizvod – dihidroksistearinska kiselina (C18H36O4, DHSA). DHSA jedan je od kemijskih prekursora u proizvodnji kozmetičkih proizvoda. Stoga je razvijen kinetički model za određivanje optimiranog procesa epoksidacije i koncentracije DHSA, gdje je identificirana svaka od reakcija. Dobiveni parametri kinetičke brzine, k bili su: k11 = 6,6442, k12 = 11,0185, k21 = 0,1026 za epoksidacijsku palmino-oleinsku kiselinu i k41 = 0,0021, k51 = 0,0142 u procesu razgradnje. Minimalna pogreška simulacije bila je 0,0937. Uz to, optimizacija prinosa DHSA provedena je Taguchijevom metodom, a dobiveni optimalni uvjeti su molarni omjer nezasićenja H2O2/oleinske kiseline – OA 1 : 1 (razina 2), molarni omjer nezasićenja mravlje kiseline – FA/OA 0,5 : 1 (razina 1), temperatura 35 °C (razina 1) i brzina miješanja 100 o min–1 (razina 1). Pod tim se uvjetima može postići visok prinos DHSA. Ovo djelo je dano na korištenje pod licencom Creative Commons Imenovanje 4.0 međunarodna.

Dihydroxystearic acid (DHSA) is a product derived from a chemical modification of palm oleic acid. Application of these valuable fatty acids can be found in cosmetics, as a thickening agent and as a coating agent for pigments due to its unique structure. This study investigates the effect of a catalyst on epoxidation and the formation of DHSA by peracid mechanism. The epoxidation yield calculated by relative conversion to oxirane (RCO%) with a high yield of 95% achieved. Thereafter, the epoxidized oleic acid was hydrolyzed to produce DHSA. The formation of DHSA was verified by analysed the physicochemical properties using Fourier Transform Infra-red (FTIR). The kinetic model was being conducted to determine reaction rate using Particle Swarm (PS). The result showed that PS obtained a minimum error of 0.2005 and a correlation coefficient, r of 0.9999.

In numerous chemical industrial sectors, the utilization of epoxidized vegetable oil has emerged as a prospective growing market for polymer development. The experiment was to discover the effectiveness of formic acid to sunflower oil molar ratio and catalysts type toward epoxidation reaction for polyols formation. Hydrolysis of an epoxide involved the reaction of an epoxide with water, resulting in the formation of a diol. Sunflower-based epoxide was carried out by in situ using performic acid mechanism with the temperature of 80°C. The optimum relative conversion to oxirane was obtained within 50 min which is 41.37% from 1:1 molar ratio of formic acid to sunflower oil and natural zeolite as a catalyst. The genetic algorithm was used to find the optimal set of parameters in the mathematical model, and MATLAB is used to implement the numerical integration and the optimization process. The kinetic rate, k parameters obtained k11 = 0.169, k12 = 33.072, k2 = 5.244 for epoxidation palm oil, and k3 = 3.89 × 10−5 in degradation process.

The epoxidation of palm kernel oil-crude oleic acid was carried out to produce epoxidized oleic acid. Performic acid was formed by mixing formic acid (oxygen carrier) and hydrogen peroxide ...

Objective and Background: Synergistic extraction was introduced to replace single extraction due to enhanced extraction efficiency of heavy metal. Methodology: In order to improve extraction efficiency, di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) was mixed with isodecanol to provide a synergistic effect together with leaching solution which is thiourea. From the single extraction system, the optimum temperature is found at 30°C producing the highest yield of %E of 91.30%. The single extraction also happened better with the presence of Fe(III) solution and thiourea as the %E is at 91.23%. Results and Conclusion: It was found that the synergistic D2EHPA-isodecanol extraction is successful as it yields higher %E than the single D2EHPA extraction.

Epoxidized palm oleic acid is often regarded as a highly valuable oleochemical due to its wide range of industrial applications, including cosmetics, personal care, and pharmaceutical products. In this study, oleic acid derived from palm oil with iodine value of 98.99 g/100 g, containing 75 % of oleic acid, 12 % of linoleic acid, 6.5 % of palmitic acid, and 6.5 % of stearic acid was epoxidised by in situ generated performic acid with hydrogen peroxide as oxygen donor and formic acid as active oxygen carrier in the presence of catalytic amount of inorganic acid. The rate constant for epoxidation of oleic acid was found to be 1.133 ∙ 10–3 mol–1 s–1 and activation energy was 91.12 kJ mol–1 at temperature of 75 °C. In addition, thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy, entropy, and free energy of activation were 88.2 kJ mol–1, −67.90 J mol–1 K–1, and 88.36 kJ mol–1, respectively. Relative conversion data showed that it was possible to develop epoxides from locally available, natural, renewable resources such as palm oil.

The excessive energy utilisation worldwide has prompted awareness of finding a new clean energy. Malaysia has large oil palm resources and releases huge amounts of oil palm biomass. Since oil palm biomass is abundantly available in Malaysia, it has the high potential of being utilised as fuel for gasification technology. Although many institutions in Malaysia are undertaking numerous research activities, the gasification technologies are not progressing as expected. The understanding of the potential and challenges faced by Malaysian industries are vital to evaluate the feasibility of gasification technology using oil palm biomass in Malaysia. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License., Prekomjerna uporaba energije na globalnoj razini potaknula je svijest o pronalasku novih, čistih izvora energije. Malezija ima velike resurse uljane palme te je velik potencijal da se njezina biomasa upotrebljava kao sirovina za rasplinjavanje u Maleziji. Iako mnoge institucije u Maleziji provode brojna istraživanja, tehnologije rasplinjavanja ne pokazuju željeni napredak. Razumijevanje potencijala koji ima biomasa uljane palme kao i izazova s kojima se suočava malezijska industrija od vitalnog su značaja za procjenu izvedivosti tehnologije rasplinjavanja temeljenog na biomasi uljane palme u ovoj državi. Ovo djelo je dano na korištenje pod licencom Creative Commons Imenovanje 4.0 međunarodna.

In the past, epoxides were mainly produced from petroleum-based sources. To date, there is a paucity of studies on the optimization of process parameters specifically epoxidized palm oil-derived oleic acid (EPOOA) as it is not fully utilised. Thus, this work aims to optimise the reaction conditions of catalytic epoxidation of palm oleic acid (OA) concerning the relative content of oxirane. EPOOA was produced by using in situ formed performic acid by mixing formic acid (FA) as the oxygen carrier with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as the oxygen donor. The results showed the optimum reaction conditions to produce EPOOA to the response of oxirane content were catalyst loading of 0.5 g, the temperature of 75 °C, agitation speed of 300 rpm, molar ratio FA/degree of unsaturation of 1.0:1.0, and molar ratio H2O2/degree of unsaturation of 1.5:1.0. The maximum relative conversion to oxirane of palm OA to oxirane was achieved up to 85.6% by applying the optimum conditions. Finally, a mathematical model was developed using MATLAB software. In this model, the fourth-order Runge–Kutta method was integrated with the genetic algorithm to determine the reaction rate that fit with the experimental data. This study proved that palm OA was successfully transformed into an epoxide that promotes palm oil base utilisation as raw material.

There is enormous growth in the epoxidation base on vegetables oil in recent year due to the rising demand for eco-friendly epoxides to replace petrochemical resources. The aim of this review is to give an insight on the article on epoxidation of various vegetables oils published in scientific journals, major proceeding and books. Review on feasibly and optimization of epoxide are found to leading topics in this area.

Coal bottom ash (CBA) is the solid residue produced from coal-fired power plant. It is classified as hazardous material, which can cause adverse effect to the environment and public health. In view of the situation, exploring and discovering possible utilization of these coal residues into value-added products has to be performed. Hence, the aim of this paper is to investigate the potential of raw CBA as an adsorbent for carbon dioxide (CO2) gas adsorption. The physicochemical characteristics of CBA were determined using ultimate and proximate analysis, nitrogen adsorption-desorption isotherm, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and elemental diffraction x-ray (EDX) analysis. CO2 adsorption study was conducted using simulated flue gas by pressure swing adsorption process in a fixed-bed reactor to evaluate the suitability of CBA as an adsorbent material. High carbon content in CBA makes it’s become a good precursor for production of carbonaceous adsorbent. Trace elements like calcium, silica and alumina, indicating that the material had a good adsorption capacity. The result indicated that CBA was able to adsorb CO2 with the adsorption capacity of 0.000276 mol CO2/g CBA. As a conclusion, CBA has the potential to be an adsorbent for its application in gas phase especially in CO2 adsorption.

The epoxidized vegetables oils can be used a raw material for a broad range of products, from pharmaceutical and plastics to paint and adhesives. Epoxidation of oleic acid was carried out by using hydrogen peroxide as an oxygen donor and formic acid as an oxygen carrier in the presence of sulphuric acid act as catalyst. The crude oleic acid contained 75% oleic acid, 12.2% linoleic acid, 6.5% palmitic acid and 7.5% stearic acid, and had an iodine value of 98.99 g/100 g. The epoxidation of oleic acid with almost complete conversion of unsaturated carbon and negligible oxirane cleavage can be obtained by the in situ techniques. An analytical approach for the prediction of the partition coefficient for formic acid between oleic acid and water, dependent on temperature and composition, has been proposed.

Aim of this research is to investigate the ability of synergist system of D2EHPA-isodecanol to recover gold from thiourea leaching solution. Synergistic extraction was introduced to replace single extraction due to enhance the extraction efficiency of heavy metal such as gold, silver copper and etc. In order to improve extraction efficiency, di-(2ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) was mixed with isodecanol to provide synergistic effect together with leaching solution which thiourea. From the synergist extraction system. The optimum pH is at 2.5 which in acidic range producing the highest yield of %E of 94.6%. It was found that synergistic D2EHPA-isodecanol extraction is successful as it yield %E of 99.4% if the ratio aqueous: organic is set to 1:2.

Для одержання епоксидованої олеїнової кислоти проведено її епоксидування з використанням in situ пероксимурашиної кислоти (HCOOOH). Пероксимурашину кислоту одержано внаслідок змішування мурашиної кислоти (як кисневого носія) та пероксиду водню (як донора кисню). Встановлено, що епоксидне кільце є дуже реакційним, особливо в присутності кислоти, що дає можливість використовувати епоксид для синтезу інших сполук. Показано, що найбільш ймовірною побічною реакцією, яка виникає при епоксидуванні in situ, є реакція оксиранового кільця з мурашиною кислотою, що призводить до утворення побічних продуктів діола та α- гліколю. Досліджено розклад оксирану епоксиду та встановлено, що реакція є першого порядку щодо оксирану та другого порядку – щодо мурашиної кислоти. The epoxidation of oleic acid was carried out by using in situ generated performic acid (HCOOOH) to produce epoxidized oleic acid. Performic acid was formed by mixing formic acid (as oxygen carrier) and hydrogen peroxide (as oxygen donor). The epoxide ring is very reactive, especially in the presence of acidic condition making the epoxide a suitable intermediate for synthesis of other chemicals. The most likely side reaction that occurred in the in situ epoxidation is the reaction of oxirane ring with formic acid, which led to formation of diol and a-glycol as side products. Oxirane cleavage of the epoxide was studied and suggests first order in oxirane concentration and second order with respect to formic acid.

Most vegetable oils have high content of unsaturated bond and can be converted into epoxidized fatty acids. These days, epoxidized vegetable oils are great concern as they are obtained from sustainable, renewable natural resources and are environmental friendly. The epoxidation of palm oleic acid was carried out by using in situ generated performic acid (HCOOOH) to produce epoxidized oleic acid. The degree of temperature, the molar ratio of formic acid or hydrogen peroxide and types of catalyst was considered. Epoxidation results were based on complete conversion oxirane, rate of epoxidation and stability of the oxirane. It was found that a maximum relative conversion oxirane (RCO) of epoxide is 88% at optimal condition.

Commercial epoxides available in the market are mainly petroleum and animal based which are non-environmental friendly and often non-halal. Oleic acid (C18:1) derived from palm kernel oil contains the unsaturation double bond (C=C) in its long alkyl chain makes it an attractive fatty acid for the production of eco-friendly epoxide. The epoxidation of oleic acid was carried out by using in situ generated performic acid (HCOOOH) to produce epoxidized oleic acid. Performic acid was formed by mixing formic acid (as oxygen carrier) and hydrogen peroxide (as oxygen donor). The results indicated that optimum conditions occurred at moderate agitation speed 300 rpm and by using 30% hydrogren peroxide. Sulfuric acid was found to be the most efficient catalyst. It was found that a maximum relative conversion to oxirane (RCO) achieved was 87.61 % at optimal condition.

Epoxidized oleic acid is often regarded as a high value oleochemical due to the wide range of industrial applications including cosmetics, personal care and pharmaceutical products. Epoxidized oleic acid also extensively chosen by industry due to its advantages on the good performance as intermediate chemicals and can be obtained from renewable sources. Synthesis and physicochemical properties of oleic acid palm oil was analyzed for further reaction of epoxidation. In this study, the epoxidation of oleic acid was investigated with performic acid generated in situ from hydrogen peroxide in H2O2 (30%) with formic acid. The characterization of oleic acid through iodine value, viscosity, acid value, saponification number and refractive index were 130, 146. 190.0, 206.1 and 1.47 respectively. On the other hand, the characterization of epoxidized oleic acid were 109.8, 156, 192.6, 219.9 and 1.38 of the same analysis. The chemical structures of the products were confirmed by 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectral analysis.

Single extraction was used to investigate the suitable condition parameters of temperature and agitation speed in extracting gold, Au (III) from printed circuit board (PCB). Extractant di-(2-ethylhexyl) phosphoric acid (D2EHPA) was mixed with thiourea leaching solution. From the extraction system, the optimised conditions are the temperature of 45°C and the agitation speed of 300rpm and obtained 88% of percentage of extraction (%E). In order to enhance the recovery of Au(III), three samples underwent stripping process, the results from three samples which are sample 1,2 and 3 showed the percentage of stripping efficiency (%S) were 50.37%, 29.58% and 25.64% respectively. The results of FTIR showed the presence of C-H and C-O bond in waste cooking oil and after addition of D2EHPA into the diluent the P-O-H, P-O-C and O-H vibration band were appeared.