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Background: Regarding the chronic nature of epilepsy, and drug resistance in many cases, herbal medicine has received remarkable interest. Objective The present study aimed to determine the anticonvulsant effects of hydro-alcoholic extract of Ocimum basilicum green leaf on Pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure in male mice. Methods: In this experimental study, 48 albino male mice, weighing 20-25 g were randomly divided into 6 groups. All study groups were injected intraperitoneally (IP). The negative and positive control groups received saline (10 mL/kg) and phenobarbital (40 mg/kg) respectively. The treatment groups received 100, 300, 500, and 1000 mg/kg doses of hydro-alcoholic extract Ocimum basilicum green leaf. To provoke convulsion, after 45 minutes, PTZ was injected (80 mg/kg) to all research groups; accordingly, the d initiation time of myoclonic and tonic-clonic seizures and the frequency of 24h death were measured. Results: The obtained results indicated that the extract delayed the initiation time of myoclonic and tonic-clonic seizures, compared with the controls. The delay was significant at doses of 1000 (P

Aims and Objective: In this work, the performance of a sodalite membrane reactor (MR) in the conversion of methanol to olefins (MTO process) was evaluated for ethylene and propylene production with in situ steam removal using 3-dimensional CFD (computational fluid dynamic) technique. Methods: Numerical simulation was performed using the commercial CFD package COMSOL Multiphysics 5.3. The finite element method was used to solve the governing equations in the 3- dimensional CFD model for the present work. In the sodalite MR model, a commercial SAPO-34 catalyst in the reaction zone was considered. The influence of key operation parameters, including pressure and temperature on methanol conversion, water recovery, and yields of ethylene, propylene, and water was studied to evaluate the performance of sodalite MR. Results: The local information of component concentration for methanol, ethylene, propylene, and water was obtained by the proposed CFD model. Literature data were applied to validate model results, and a good agreement was attained between the experimental data and predicted results using CFD model. Permeation flux through the sodalite membrane was increased by an increase of reaction temperature, which led to the enhancement of water stream recovered in the permeate side. Conclusion: The CFD modeling results showed that the sodalite MR in the MTO process had higher performance in methanol conversion compared to the fixed-bed reactor (methanol conversion of 97% and 89% at 733 K for sodalite MR and fixed-bed reactor, respectively).

Ghrelin, an endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptors, plays a considerable role in important neurological effects related to food intake and energy homeostasis. As was found, regular physical activity may provide significant improvement of the cognitive functions in various behavioral situations. We aimed to evaluate the effects of ghrelin and physical training (aerobic exercises) on passive avoidance memory in rats. Experiments were performed on 64 three- to four-month-old rats. Experimental groups received intrahippocampal injections of 3.0 nmol ghrelin or/and performed aerobic exercises (running on a motorized treadmill) for 8 weeks. It was found that the combined influence of ghrelin and aerobic exercise significantly improves acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval of passive avoidance memory in rats, and the combined effects are considerably greater than the effects of separate applications of ghrelin and performance of exercise. It is supposed that aerobic exercise contributes to an increase in the endogenous production of ghrelin.

Despite the extensive efforts to treat the leading cause of neurodegenerative diseases (ND), a little progress has been reported. Red light might affect ND through many specific mechanisms. The purpose of this investigation is to explore the effect of red light on the expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LRP-1) and transient receptor potential ankyrin-1 (TRPA-1) gene in the hippocampus, and the serum melatonin level (SML) of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuro-inflammated rats.Red-light therapy was implemented using a wavelength 630 nm under different light conditions and the passive avoidance (PA) and Y-Maze tests were employed to assess memory performance. To evaluate the LRP-1 and TRPA-1 genes expression, quantitive real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed. To measure the SML, ELISA was performed before and after the red-light radiation.LPS caused memory impairment in both behavioral tests. Red-light therapy improved PA memory in all light conditions (Taken together, the results suggest that red-light therapy can reduce the complications of memory impairment in rats. This study has found that red-light therapy demonstrates higher effect during the period of dark phase compared to light phase. No doubt, further experimental studies would help us to establish a greater degree of accuracy on this matter.

Calibration of ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) is cumbersome, time-consuming, and constitutes a significant limitation for the development of single-use and wearable disposable sensors. To address this problem, we have studied the effect of ion-selective membrane solvent on ISE reproducibility by comparing tetrahydrofuran (THF) (a typical solvent for membrane preparation) and cyclohexanone. In addition, a single-step integration of semiconducting/transducer polymer poly(3-octylthiophene) (POT) with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) into the paper-based ISEs (PBISEs) substrate was introduced. PBISEs for potassium and sodium ions were developed, and these ISEs present outstanding sensor performance and high potential reproducibility, as low as ±1.0 mV (

Introduction: Diabetes mellitus has harmful effects on body functions, such as learning and memory. According to the role of exercise and medicinal plants on body health, the purpose of this study was to survey the effect of combined aerobic training and the use of Ripe Pistachio Hulls (RPH) hydro-alcoholic extract on learning and memory in streptozotocin-induced diabetic male rats. Methods: In this experimental study, 42 male Wistar rats weighing 250-280 g were used in 6 groups with an equal number of 7 rats in each one. Streptozotocin (STZ) (50 mg / kg)was used to induce diabetes , and the test protocol was applied for 8 weeks. Passive avoidance memory was assessed using a step-through passive avoidance apparatus (shuttle box). SPSS software was used to analyze the data and P

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been widely used in animal modeling of inflammation-induced hyperalgesia. Proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) are involved in the pathogenesis of pain. Cichorium intybus (CI) contains many compounds which inhibit inflammatory mediators. The present study was designed to evaluate the effect of CI root hydro-alcoholic extract (CE) and Esculetin (ESC) - a bioactive coumarin compound of CI- on LPS-induced pain and inflammation in male mice. CE constituents were evaluated by GC-MS. Two different concentration of CE (300 and 500 mg/kg/p.o.) and ESC (40 mg/kg/i.p.,o.) were used for experiments. Drugs were administered once daily for 7 days. On day 7, LPS (0.83 mg/kg/i.p.) was injected 30 min after the last drug administration. Blood samples were collected 90 min after LPS injection. Hot plate and formalin tests were performed 24 hours after LPS injection. Serum TNF-α and IL-1β levels were measured using ELISA. LPS significantly increased the response time of animals in hot plate and both phases of formalin tests. CE (300 and 500 mg/kg/p.o.) significantly reduced the response time in comparison with the LPS group in hot plate and both phases of formalin tests. CE (500 mg/kg/p.o.) reduced serum TNF-α and IL-1β levels. Esculetin increased the response time in hot plate and the second phase of formalin test compared to the LPS group and also decreased IL-1β level, significantly. Our results demonstrated that CE exhibited anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects better than esculetin. The probable mechanism of anti-hyperalgesic effect of CE is related to inhibition of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α.

Depression is a devastating mood disorder affecting more than 300 million people worldwide. Almost 30 % of patients still suffer from treatment resistant depression. Although many reports support the involvement of orexin in the pathophysiology of depression, the precise role of orexin is still unclear. In this study, we evaluated the role of the orexin 1 receptor (Orx

Objectives: The aim of the present work is evaluating the special effects of Urtica Dioica and Lamium Album on the serum level of K-Ras and GSK-3 beta in diabetic rats. Methods: In the present experimental study, 32 male Wistar rats randomly divided into 4 groups (Group I: normal control rats; receiving daily PBS, Group 2: diabetic control rats; receiving single dose of streptozotocin (60 mg/kg) and daily PBS, Group 3: Diabetic rats treated with 100 mg/kg of hydroalcoholic extract of the U. dioi ca , Group 4: Diabetic rats treated with 100 mg/kg of hydroalcoholic extract of L. Album. Diabetes-induced by an intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (60 mg/ kg). On the 14 th day of treatment, the weight, fasting blood sugar (FBS) and on 28 th day blood glucose, K-Ras and GSK3 beta was measured. Results: In diabetic group blood GSK- 3 beta increase in comparison to control group (P < 0.05), also blood K-Ras decrease in the diabetic group (P < 0.05). Both extracts reduced GSK-3 beta level, however, this reduction was only statistically significant by U.dioica (P < 0.05). Compared to diabetic group, blood K-Ras level increased by both extract (P < 0.05). Also diabetes induction increase blood glucose levels and both extracts decrease its level significantly (P < 0.05).there is no significant differences among both extract effects on blood glucose, and K-Ras. Conclusion: For the first time shown that both extracts by regulating GSK-3 beta and K-Ras improve blood glucose level. More studies are needed to determine all the effects of these herbs.

Pyridoxine (vitamin B6) toxicity is a well-known model for peripheral neuropathy. GABA and glutamate are two neurotransmitters in neural pathways involved in the peripheral neuropathy. Cichorium intybus (Chicory) contains glycosides and triterpenoids, which inhibit glutamatergic transmission and enhance GABAergic transmission. The present study was aimed at studying the effect of chicory extract (CE) on the pyridoxine-induced peripheral neuropathy with a particular focus on glutamatergic and GABAergic systems. In this experimental study, a high dose of pyridoxine (800 mg/kg, i.p.) was injected for 14 days to induce neuropathy in male rats. To evaluate the behavioral symptoms, three tests including rotarod, hot plate, and foot fault were used. After the induction of neuropathy, CE (50 mg/kg i.p.) was injected intraperitoneally for 10 consecutive days. Morphologically, the sciatic nerve and the DRG neurons were evaluated in the control, neuropathy, and chicory groups by H&E staining. For evaluating the mechanism, picrotoxin (1 mg/kg) and MK-801 (0.1 mg/kg) were also individually injected 15 min before the extract administration. The concentration of TNF-α in rat sciatic nerve and DRG neurons were also measured by enzyme-linked-immunoassay (ELISA). Morphological and physiological changes occurred in the DRG and sciatic nerve following pyridoxine intoxication. The CE exerted an anti-neuropathic effect on the sciatic nerve and DRG neurons and also decreased reaction time in hot plate test (p

Ethnopharmacological relevance Cuscuta epithymum Murr. (CE) is a parasitic plant used as a traditional medicine to treat various diseases such as muscle and joint pains and headache different parts of the world, Europe in the north, Asia in the east. Aim of the study In this study, we aimed to investigate the anti-nociceptive effect of the methanolic extract of the aerial parts of CE and its probable mechanism(s) in mice. Materials and methods The anti-nociceptive activity of different doses of CE methanolic extract (2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/kg, i.p.) was assessed using tail flick, formalin and writhing tests. Morphine (5 mg/kg, s.c.) was used as positive control drug. The possible mechanisms were evaluated by using naloxone (4 mg/kg, i.p.), ondansetron (4 mg/kg, i.p.), picrotoxin (0.6 mg/kg, i.p.) and MK-801 (0.03 mg/kg, i.p.). Results GC-MS analysis indicated that one of the main components of CE extract was terpenoid compounds. The CE extract (25–100 mg/kg), like morphine, reduced tail flick latency and nociceptive response in both phases of the formalin test. We also observed that the extract significantly decreased the number of abdominal contractions dose-dependently from 5 to 100 mg/kg. The results of tail flick and the first phase of formalin test proved that unlike ondansetron and MK-801, naloxone and picotroxin were able to reverse the anti-nociceptive effect of CE extract. Conclusion Our observations showed the anti-nociceptive potential of the CE extract, which may be mediated by opioidergic and GABAergic systems.

Effects of a hydroalcoholic olive leaf extract (OLE) on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ, 80 mg/kg)-induced seizures in mice were examined. As was found, the OLE significantly increased the delay of PTZinitiated myoclonic seizures when injected i.p. in a dose of 1000 mg/kg and also significantly delayed the initiation of tonico-clonic seizures in doses from 250 to 1000 mg/kg. The effects of the OLE on clonico-tonic seizures were more intense than those on myoclonic seizures. The OLE also significantly reduced the mortality rate within a 24-h observation period after PTZ injections. At 125 and 1000 mg/kg doses, 2 and 7 animals of 8 individuals in the OLE-treated groups survived, while all 8 mice died during 24 h in the control group.

Background: Lifestyle factors, including environmental and occupational exposure, have a key role in reproductive health status and may impact fertility. Formaldehyde (FA) is a suspected reproductive toxicant, which may cause significant adverse effects on the reproductive system. This study was aimed at detecting the impact of FA and the possible protective role of vitamin E on the male reproductive system in rats. Materials and Methods: Thirty-two adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: control rats, rats treated with vehicle (corn-oil), rats treated with 10 mg/kg/day FA (FAt), and rats treated with FA plus 30 mg/kg/day vitamin E plus vehicle (FAt+ vitamin E) for two weeks. After treatment, sex hor­mone levels were examined using ELISA. Moreover the count, morphology, and motility of sperm, were observed. Results: The sperm count and the percentage of rapid progressive sperm were significantly decreased in rats in the FAt-treated group compared with those in the control and vehicle-treated groups (p0.05). Conclusion: The findings of this study revealed that FA exposure had a negative impact on sperm parameters and some reproductive hormones in rats and vita­min E attenuated the deleterious impact of FA on the reproductive system of adult male rats. [GMJ.2017;6(4):330-7] DOI: 10.22086/gmj.v6i4.904

In this work, the performance of a sodalite membrane reactor (MR) in the conversion of methanol to olefins (MTO process) was evaluated for ethylene and propylene production with in situ steam removal using 3-dimensional CFD (computational fluid dynamic) technique.Numerical simulation was performed using the commercial CFD package COMSOL Multiphysics 5.3. The finite element method was used to solve the governing equations in the 3- dimensional CFD model for the present work. In the sodalite MR model, a commercial SAPO-34 catalyst in the reaction zone was considered. The influence of key operation parameters, including pressure and temperature on methanol conversion, water recovery, and yields of ethylene, propylene, and water was studied to evaluate the performance of sodalite MR.The local information of component concentration for methanol, ethylene, propylene, and water was obtained by the proposed CFD model. Literature data were applied to validate model results, and a good agreement was attained between the experimental data and predicted results using CFD model. Permeation flux through the sodalite membrane was increased by an increase of reaction temperature, which led to the enhancement of water stream recovered in the permeate side.The CFD modeling results showed that the sodalite MR in the MTO process had higher performance in methanol conversion compared to the fixed-bed reactor (methanol conversion of 97% and 89% at 733 K for sodalite MR and fixed-bed reactor, respectively).

N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptors are critically involved in the learning and memory formation and dizocilpine (MK-801) is an antagonist of NMDA receptor. Ghrelin plays a crucial role in learning and memory processes. The present study was conducted to the evaluation of ghrelin effect on passive avoidance memory impairment induced by MK801. In this experimental study, 24 male wistar rats were randomly distributed into 3 groups of 8 each. Passive avoidance tests of animals were evaluated using Shuttle Box apparatus. One week after the surgery, ghrelin (3 nmol) was injected intra-hippocampally, 5 min before the MK-801administration. MK-801 (0.15 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally (i.p.), 10 min before the test session. Pre-test injection of MK-801 significantly decreased STL (step through latency) at 24 h and 48 h (P < 0.001) and 10 days (P < 0.01) and increased TDC (time spent in dark compartment) at 24 h, 48 h and 10 days (P < 0.001) after training in comparison with control group. Pre-test injection of ghrelin + MK-801 significantly increased STL at 24 h (P < 0.01), 48 h and 10 days (P < 0.001) and decreased TDC at 24 h, 48 h and 10 days (P < 0.001) after training in comparison with MK-801 received group. It is concluded that pre-test injection of MK-801 impaired passive avoidance memory. Administration of ghrelin before MK-801 ameliorated memory impairment induced by MK-801. It is assumed that this compensative effect of ghrelin was mediated by NMDA receptor.

Neuro-inflammation is responsible for cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this study, we aimed to investigate the enriched environment (EE) effect on learning and memory impairment as well as on pro-inflammatory cytokines changes induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). LPS injection (1 mg/kg/i.p, days 1, 3, 5, and 7) was used to develop the animal model of neuro-inflammation. Twenty-eight male Wistar rats were used in the experiment and randomly divided into 4 groups: 1) sham (S), 2) sham + enriched environment (SE), 3) LPS (L), and 4) LPS + EE (LE). Two different housing conditions, including standard environment (SE) and enriched environment, were used. The Morris Water Maze (MWM) test was used to examine animals learning and memory. IL-1β, IL-10, and TNF-α levels were measured in the brain using ELISA. We found that LPS significantly impaired learning and memory (p < 0.05) in the MWM task, but EE could significantly improve learning and memory impairment (p < 0.05). IL-1 and IL-10 levels dramatically increased in the LPS group (P < 0.05), whereas EE could decrease and increase IL-1β and IL-10 values in the LPS + EE group (P < 0.05), respectively. TNF-α levels were traced but had not detectable values in the hippocampus. Thus, we can conclude that EE has healing effects on LPS induced neuro-inflammation and can improve learning and memory deficit; however, further studies are needed to support the findings of our study.

The main objective of this work is the modelling and optimization of antidepressant drug fluoxetine degradation in aqueous solution by ozone/H2O2 process using central composite design. The operational parameters were ozone concentration, initial hydrogen peroxide concentration, reaction time and initial fluoxetine concentration. A good agreement between the predicted values of fluoxetine removal and experimental results were observed (R2=0.976 and Adj-R2=0.955). Pareto analysis indicated that all selected factors and some interactions were effective on the removal efficiency. It was found that the reaction time is the most effective parameter in the ozone/H2O2 process. The maximum removal efficiency (86.14%) was achieved at ozone concentration of 30 mg L(-1), initial H2O2 concentration of 0.02 mM, reaction time of 20 min and initial fluoxetine concentration of 50 mg L(-1) as the optimum conditions.

Cognitive styles influence the performance of language learners and can predict their success in the process of language learning. Considering field dependence/independence cognitive styles, this study aims at determining if they are significant in English vocabulary knowledge. A number of EFL university students took part in the study. The investigation was done through using Vocabulary Size Test (VST) (Nation, 2007) and the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT) (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin, and Karp, 1971). Using the Vocabulary Size Test (VST), the participants were divided into three groups of high, mid, and low. Moreover, with respect to the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), they were divided into two groups, field dependents and field independents. Mean score comparison revealed there was a credible and meaningful relationship between field dependence/independence cognitive styles and total vocabulary knowledge. It was also indicated there was a significant relationship between field dependence/independence cognitive styles and vocabulary knowledge in the high and mid groups. Finally, based on the findings, teachers should take learners’ individual differences into consideration so that they could adopt and apply teaching methods in line with the learners’ various cognitive styles.

Epilepsy is one of the most common neurologic disorders. Though there are effective medications available to reduce the symptoms of the disease, their side effects have limited their usage. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) has been shown to attenuate seizure in different animal models. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the role of CB1 and CB2 receptors in this attenuation. Male wistar rats were used for the current experiment. PTZ was injected to induce chemical kindling in animals. After verification of kindling in animals, treatment was performed with PEA, AM251 and AM630 in different groups. Latency to induce seizure, seizure stages and latency and duration of fifth stage of seizure was recorded for each animal. Injection of PTZ led to seizure in the animals. Pretreatment with PEA increased the latency to initiate seizures and reduced the duration of seizure. Pretreatment with different dosages of AM251 had contrary effects so that at lower doses they increased the seizure in animals but at higher doses led to the attenuation of seizure. AM630 increased seizures in a dose dependent manner. Combination of the antagonists increased the seizure parameters and attenuated the effect of PEA on seizure. PEA attenuated the PTZ-induced seizures and pretreatment with CB1 and CB2 antagonists diminished this effect of PEA, but still PEA was effective, which might be attributed to the contribution of other receptors in PEA anti-epileptic properties. Findings of the current study implied that endocannabinoid signaling pathway might have an important role in the effects of PEA.

The effects of prior treatment of cysteamine, a somatostatin inhibitor, on pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) induced epileptic and plastic changes in CA1 excitability were examined. Population spikes were evoked by activation of Schaffer collaterals with a range of stimulation intensities. Changes in the population spike and epileptiform amplitudes were used as indices to quantify the effects of PTZ exposure in the control and cysteamine pre-treated slices. Cysteamine pre-treatment decreased baseline CA1 population spike amplitude following high intensity stimulation of Schaffer collaterals. Following PTZ application directly to the slices, cysteamine diminished the increased population spike and epileptiform amplitudes which were normally observed following collateral stimulation. Magnesium-free medium induced epileptiform activity was also significantly reduced with cysteamine pre-treatment. It is concluded that somatostatin may be involved in PTZ-induced epileptic and plastic changes in CA1 excitability.

Most of the research which has investigated the relationship between effective learners’ variables and language proficiency allows the researcher to quantify the strength of the relationship. The scope of this paper limited to examining the role of field dependence/independence cognitive styles and gender differences on EFL learners’ lexical knowledge. To attain the goals of the research, a number of EFL learners sat through the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) as well as the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT). The findings of the study indicate the need for caution when concluding that cognitive styles of field dependence/independence affect lexical knowledge in the absence of tests for possible interactions between FD/FI and other variables, including gender differences that may influence vocabulary knowledge. By the same token, understanding the effective role of students’ cognitive aspects and gender will enable teachers and researchers to design appropriate materials and activities to help students enhance their lexical competence.

Possible anticonvulsant effects of 2-chloroadenosine injected focally into the perirhinal cortex of amygdala kindled rats were investigated over a 2 h period. Animals were microinfused (1 microl) with 2-chloroadenosine (2-CLA; 5, 10, 15, 25 and 100 nM) or artificial cerebrospinal fluid applied through a cannula located in the perirhinal cortex. At the doses employed, 2-CLA significantly reduced afterdischarge duration and stage 5 seizure duration. The latency to stage 4 seizure was increased only at the highest dose of 2-CLA (100 nM), while even at this dose no significant change in seizure stage could be seen. The maximum effect of 2-CLA was obtained 30 min after microinfusion of the drug. Pre-treatment (intraperirhinal cortex) of animals with the nonselective adenosine antagonist, caffeine (50 microM; 1 microl), blocked the anticonvulsant activity of 2-CLA. These results suggest that adenosine receptors located in the perirhinal cortex may play an important role in the suppression of seizure activity elicited from the amygdala.

The present study was designed to study the preventive effect of hydroalcoholic extract of ripe pistachio hulls (RPH) in the elevated plus maze model of anxiety. One hundred twenty female wistar rats in their estrous cycle were divided into 15 groups of 8 each and received various concentrations of hydroalcoholic extract of RPH except the control groups. Elevated plus maze was used to measure the level of anxiety. Percentage of time spent in the open arms (%OAT), percentage of the number of entries into the open arms (%OAE), locomotor activity, and time spent in the closed arms (CAT), and the number of entries in to the closed arms (CAE) were measured and compared. Dose-response experiments showed that only 10 mg/kg dose of RPH extract significantly increased %OAT (P < 0.001) and %OAE (P < 0.05) compared to the control group, indicating anti-anxiety effects of the extract. Also, pentylenetetrazol and an estrogen receptor antagonist (ERA) tamoxifen could block anti-anxiety effects of the extract (P < 0.001). It was also noticed that tamoxifen was able to significantly reduce locomotor activity. As the RPH extract showed a preventive effect in experimental model of anxiety, it might be concomitantly administered with other anxiolytic medications.

Using field potential recording in the CA1 region of hippocampal slices from rats injected with cysteamine (200 mg/kg, s.c.), changes in activity and plasticity of Schaffer collateral-CA1 pyramidal cell synapses were examined. Extracellular field potential recording prior to and following either θ-pattern primed bursts (PBs), perfusion with low Mg 2+ or with high Ca 2+ , indicated long-term potentiation (LTP) of population spikes amplitude (PSA). The extent of LTP of PSA was significantly lower in cysteamine-treated rats. It is concluded that cysteamine can entail lasting modifications in susceptibility of hippocampal CA1 for synaptic plasticity induced by tetanus. Similarly, disability in function of CA1 synapses can be traced by other protocols of LTP induction. The relevancy of the results to the facilitatory role of endogenous somatostatin in the function of Schaffer collateral-CA1 pyramidal cell synapses is also discussed.

The seizure-modulating effects of 2-chloroadenosine (2-CLA) infused directly into the amygdala were investigated. Different groups of amygdala-kindled rats were infused (1 microliter) with 2-CLA (0.25, 1, 10 and 25 nM), caffeine (200 microM and 2 mM), a combination of the two or artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) applied directly through a cannula located in the amygdala. Infusion of 2-CLA dramatically suppressed seizure stage (SS), after discharge duration (ADD) and stage 5 seizure duration (S5D), while the latency to bilateral forelimb clonus (S4L) was significantly prolonged. These anticonvulsant effects were evident after 5 min, reached a maximum at the 60 min time point and were still detectable 360 min post-2-CLA infusion. Pretreatment with caffeine blocked the anticonvulsant effects of 2-CLA dose-dependently. These results may suggest that in amygdaloid-kindled rats, adenosine receptors located in the amygdala play a major role in the expression of the anticonvulsant activity of 2-CLA.