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The caracal (Caracal caracal) is a medium-sized felid with a wide distribution in Africa and extending through Southwest Asia to India. It remains essentially unstudied in its genetic diversity and structure and phylogeographic history throughout its geographic range. In this study, we analysed mitochondrial Cytochrome b variation in the Iranian caracal and found considerably low diversity and a lack of geographic structure. Mitochondrial diversity patterns are compatible with a recent demographic bottleneck or a founder event by a single or few lineages at the origin of the extant diversity. We also analysed sequences from other areas along the caracal’s range for the first range-wide phylogeographic comparisons in the species. The haplotypes found in the Arabian Peninsula are identical or closely related to the haplotype predominant in Iran, which raises the hypothesis that the historical demographic pattern inferred for Iran may be extended to Southwest Asia. A remarkable result was to find in a Somalian individual a haplotype very divergent from all other sequences analysed. Several different analyses, including sequencing of a fragment of the ATP8/6 genes located at least about 6.4 kb from Cytochrome b in the mitochondrial DNA molecule, suggest that this lineage in the Somalian sample is mitochondrial and not a non-functional nuclear pseudogene. Its genetic divergence from haplotypes in Southwest Asia and South Africa was estimated to be 8.2 ± 1.4% and 7.5 ± 1.3%, respectively. In comparison, the genetic divergence between the more geographically distant Southwest Asian and South African haplotypes was 2.0 ± 0.6%. A critical examination of the results of the different molecular clock methods used points to a divergence time between the Somalian haplotype and the Southwest Asian + South African clade in the late Early Pleistocene at ~ 1–1.3 Ma, and between the Southwest Asian and South African lineages at ~ 300–500 ka, i.e., midway through the Middle Pleistocene.

SummaryAsian Houbara Chlamydotis macqueenii is a vulnerable flagship species specific to steppe, desert and semi-desert habitats of the Middle East and Central Asia. Iran provides a critical corridor in the middle of Asian Houbara’s migratory route and also hosts a relatively large proportion of wintering and breeding populations. The aim of this study was to assess the distribution and habitat suitability of both wintering and breeding populations of Asian Houbara in Iran and evaluate the effectiveness of the existing protected area network for long-term protection of the species. For this purpose, 644 occurrence points for wintering and 216 points for breeding birds were collected from 17 Iranian provinces during 2015 to 2017. We then used a consensus species distribution modelling (SDM) approach using 11 uncorrelated environmental variables to explore the distribution of Asian Houbara habitats. Results showed that climatic and topographic variations have the most significant influence on the regional-scale distribution of Asian Houbara. Of the suitable habitats recognised for the wintering and breeding populations, 40.6% and 29.6% respectively overlapped with the extent of the protected network. A high level of spatial niche similarity (78%) was observed between wintering and breeding populations. The central, eastern and south-central Iranian semi-arid regions and desert landscapes hosted the majority of both wintering and breeding houbara occurrences. Results of this study could be used for adopting direct management planning and raising the protection level of important no-hunting areas.

Gray literature and data from unpublished sources can provide important scientific information that has not been published scientifically. The Persian leopard (hereafter leopard) Panthera pardus saxicolor is classed as endangered on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and also is one of the least‐studied subspecies of leopard. It occurs in the Caucasus and Central and Southwest Asia. Iran contains more than 75% of the leopard's extant range, and the leopard population in this country serves as a source for neighboring countries. In this study, we determined the distribution and human‐caused mortality of leopards in Iran, by reviewing unpublished data and Farsi gray literature (which includes government reports) between 1 January 2010 and 30 December 2018. We created the most recent distribution map of the leopard in Iran. Our data display that human‐caused mortality of leopard in Iran mostly includes poaching and intentional poisoning, and roadkill., We created the most recent distribution map of the Persian leopards in Iran. We then identified poaching and intentional poisoning, and roadkill as the most important causes of leopard mortality in Iran.

Spirocerca lupi (family: Spirocercidae; order: Spirurida) are parasitic nematodes found in the esophagus of cats and dogs, as well as in other carnivore animals throughout the tropical, subtropical, and temperate countries of Asia and the Americas. These animals become infested by eating an intermediate host or a transport host. In adult felines, this parasite often resides in the mucosa of the esophagus, where it forms granulomatous nodules. In this work, a wild immature female Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul) that was younger than 1 year old was killed by a herding dog (heeler) in Mashhad, Iran. After necropsy, parasite samples were gathered from the stomach and after clarification by lactophenol, the nematodes were recognized as Spirocerca lupi. Microscopic diagnoses in the stomach include granulomatous nodules, mucosal gland destruction, necrosis, and inflammatory cell infiltration. This report characterizes the first documented case of spirocercosis in a Pallas’s cat in the world.

Spirocerca lupi is an international nematode of Canine and wild carnivores. The generic clinical symptoms are regurgitation, vomiting, and pursiness. The parasite usually procreates nodular masses in the esophagus and pectoral aorta. On July 2014, a four-month male sandy fox was found accidentally killed on the road in Bafgh City, Southeast of Yazd, Yazd Province, Iran during necropsy, referring to esophagus, parasites were collected from esophagus and transmissive up to 70% of alcohol. Parasites were recognized as S. lupi. After clarification of lactophenol and staining, the nematodes were recognized as S. lupi according to key guidelines of Taylor. Besides, the tissue samples were isolated from esophagus wall - the appendix site of nematode for histopathological investigation - so they were transmissive up to 10% of buffered formalin and stained with haematoxylin and eosin. Microscopic diagnoses in esophagus were included epithelial destruction, wall thickening, inflammatory cells infiltration, necrosis and vascular thrombosis. With the author’s knowledge, this is the first report and histopathological investigation of S. lupi in sandy fox.

The Small Five-toed Jerboa, Allactaga elater, is a small rodent adapted to desert and semi-arid habitats with a widespread distribution around the Caucasus. Previous studies have suggested the occurrence of subspecific variation within the species but, except for a recent phylogeny of the genus Allactaga, most of the work done on the taxonomy of the group relies on morphological data only. To contribute to the current understanding of patterns of genetic diversity of A. elater we analysed one mitochondrial locus, cytochrome b, from 13 Iranian specimens. Comparing to a recent phylogeny, our results suggest the existence of two additional mitochondrial lineages, one that clusters within previously described lineages and a new and highly divergent one. The two novel mitochondrial lineages occur in the north and form two highly divergent monophyletic groups (Dxy = 14%), which likely separated during the Pleistocene.

Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to global biodiversity. Felids, among the many taxa experiencing population declines and range contraction around the world, are known as ecologically and politically powerful levers in conservation programs. Many felids are wide-ranging, and therefore, identifying and conserving their core habitat patches and corridors is essential for developing an umbrella strategy for protecting co-existing species. We employed a multi-scale, multi-species approach to model habitat suitability and connectivity for six felids across Iran. We identified potential core habitats and corridors of movement. We also quantified the spatial niche overlap to estimate the most important variables of habitat selection within the guild. We evaluated the effectiveness of conservation areas in conserving habitats and connectivity. Our findings revealed that each species' habitat use was influenced in a scale-dependent manner by different sets of environmental variables. Core habitats of felids were mostly located in conservation areas. We identified a number of small core habitats for most felids outside conservation areas. Maintaining corridors and stepping stone habitat patches along corridors may be needed to facilitate movement of individuals, especially between habitat remnants in unprotected areas. Our study highlights the importance of considering multiple spatial scales in management and conservation of carnivores. Our analysis shows that habitat selection and connectivity predictions are both very sensitive to scale, and incorrect scale of analysis can result in incorrect inferences that may lead to dramatically inefficient or ineffective conservation actions.

Wildlife-vehicle collisions are an important cause of mortality for many species, and the number of collisions is expected to grow rapidly as the global road network quickly expands over the next few decades. Wildlife-vehicle collisions also have the potential to be extremely detrimental to small wildlife populations, such as the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus), with only 43 individuals remaining in the wild. We assessed the spatial distribution of road mortalities between 2004 and 2016 to identify roadkill hotspots involving Asiatic cheetahs in Iran using network kernel density estimation. A total of sixteen cheetah fatalities due to wildlife-vehicle collisions were recorded, and we identified six road fragments as roadkill hotspots. Efforts to reduce wildlife-cheetah collisions should be targeted in the densest hotspots. We review the options available to achieve this, and we recommend a strategic shift away from the ineffective warning signage currently used, and instead suggest adopting an evidence-based approach focusing on installing wildlife crossing structures in conjunction with fencing in roadkill hotspots. These measures will help to enhance the conservation status of the Asiatic cheetah, as the current high level of mortality of Asiatic cheetahs on Iran’s roads could have potentially dramatic impacts on this critically endangered subspecies.