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Antimony selenide (Sb$_2$Se$_3$) is an auspicious material for solar energy conversion that has seen rapid improvement over the past ten years, but the photovoltage deficit remains a challenge. Here, simple and low-temperature treatments of the p–n heterojunction interface of Sb$_2$Se$_3$/TiO$_2$-based photocathodes for photoelectrochemical water splitting were explored to address this challenge. The FTO/Ti/Au/Sb$_2$Se$_3$ (substrate configuration) stack was treated with (NH$_4$)$_2$S as an etching solution, followed by CuCl$_2$ treatment prior to deposition of the TiO$_2$ by atomic layer deposition. The different treatments show different mechanisms of action compared to similar reported treatments of the back Au/Sb$_2$Se$_3$ interface in superstrate configuration solar cells. These treatments collectively increased the onset potential from 0.14 V to 0.28 V vs. reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE) and the photocurrent from 13 mA cm$^{−2}$ to 18 mA cm$^{−2}$ at 0 V vs. RHE as compared to the untreated Sb$_2$Se$_3$ films. From SEM and XPS studies, it is clear that the etching treatment induces a morphological change and removes the surface Sb$_2$Se$_3$ layer, which eliminates the Fermi-level pinning that the oxide layer generates. CuCl$_2$ further enhances the performance due to the passivation of the surface defects, as supported by density functional theory molecular dynamics (DFT-MD) calculations, improving charge separation at the interface. The simple and low-cost semiconductor synthesis method combined with these facile, low-temperature treatments further increases the practical potential of Sb$_2$Se$_3$ for large-scale water splitting.

Ammonia solution etching was carried out on thermally-oxidised cuprous oxide (TO-Cu2O) in photocathode devices for water splitting. The etched devices showed increased photoelectrochemical (PEC) performance compared to the unetched ones as well as improved reproducibility. -8.6 mA cm-2 and -7 mA cm-2 photocurrent density were achieved at 0 V and 0.5 V versus the reversible hydrogen electrode (VRHE), respectively, in the champion sample with an onset potential of 0.92 VRHE and a fill factor of 44 %. An applied bias photon-to-current efficiency of 3.6 % at 0.56 VRHE was obtained, which represents a new record for Cu2O-based photocathode systems. Capacitance-based profiling studies showed a strong pinning effect from interfacial traps in the as-grown device, and these traps were removed by ammonia solution etching. Moreover, the etching procedure gave rise to a diverse morphology of Cu2O crystals based on the different crystallographic orientations. The distribution of crystallographic orientations and the relationship between the crystal orientation and the morphology after etching were examined by electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The high-index crystal group showed a statistically higher PEC performance than the low-index group. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed metallic copper at the Cu2O/Ga2O3 interface, which we attribute as the dominant trap that limits the PEC performance. It is concluded that the metallic copper originates from the reduction of the CuO impurity layer on the as-grown Cu2O sample during the ALD process, while the reduction from Cu2O to Cu is not favorable.

Electrochemical reactions powered by renewable electricity are an important means of reducing the carbon footprint of large-scale chemical processes. Here, we investigate the efficient conversion of biomass-derived 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) to 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), an important building block in the polymer and pharmaceutical industries, using a cheap and abundant nickel-based electrocatalyst. We elucidate the key factors for tuning the chemical selectivity for HMF oxidation over the competing oxygen evolution reaction (OER) at the catalyst surface. We show that the selectivity for HMF oxidation is enhanced by removing trace impurities of iron species as well as adjusting the composition of the alkali hydroxide electrolyte solution. LiOH solution without iron impurities is more favorable for HMF oxidation, whereas CsOH solution with iron species present is more active for the OER and unfavorable for HMF oxidation. Under optimized conditions, HMF oxidation in 1 M LiOH electrolyte solution without iron (pH 14) achieved 98% faradaic efficiency for the production of FDCA. The principles used in this work can be applied to other electrosynthetic reactions, in particular where the OER is the main competing side reaction.

Although electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a powerful technique for investigating optoelectronic devices, realistic equivalent circuit (EC) models suitable for multi‐layered water splitting electrodes have rarely been reported due to their complex nature. In the present study, the utility of the EIS method for investigating multi‐layered photocathodes for photoelectrochemical water splitting is demonstrated. By analyzing the EIS data of TiO2‐coated Sb2Se3 photocathodes, one is able to obtain information about the constituent semiconductors and interfaces such as recombination processes, carrier lifetimes, doping densities, and flat band potentials under operando conditions. The charge transfer time to the electrolyte is also extracted from the EIS data and confirmed by transient photocurrent decay measurements. In addition, the method is successfully applied to other photocathodes with different classes of light absorber, such as metal oxides (Cu2O) and crystalline Si, to compare the device characteristics under real operational conditions. It is shown that the lifetime of photo‐generated carriers in the Si photocathode is much higher than those of the Sb2Se3 and Cu2O photocathodes. It is believed that the EIS analysis method presented in this study will become a powerful routine characterization technique for discovering the limiting factors in a wide range of photo‐electrosynthetic as well as photovoltaic devices.

We report on the preparation and the physical properties of superconducting (TaNb)1−x(ZrHfTi)x high-entropy alloy films. The films were prepared by means of magnetron sputtering at room temperature, with x ranging from 0 to 1 with an average thickness of 600–950 nm. All films crystallize in a pseudo body-centered cubic (BCC) structure. For samples with x<0.65, the normal-state properties are metallic, while for x≥0.65 the films are weakly insulating. The transition from metallic to weakly insulating occurs right at the near-equimolar stoichiometry. We find all films, except for x=0 or 1, to become superconducting at low temperatures, and we interpret their superconducting properties within the Bardeen-Cooper-Schrieffer (BCS) framework. The highest transition temperature Tc=6.9K of the solid solution is observed for x∼0.43. The highest upper-critical field Bc2(0)=11.05 T is found for the near-equimolar ratio x∼0.65, where the mixing entropy is the largest. The superconducting parameters derived for all the films from transport measurements are found to be close to those that are reported for amorphous superconductors. Our results indicate that these films of high-entropy alloys are promising candidates for superconducting device fabrication.

Antimony sulfide (Sb2S3) is a promising light-absorbing semiconductor for photovoltaic applications, though it remains vastly unexplored for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Sb2S3 was synthesized by a simple sulfurization of electrodeposited antimony metal at relatively low temperatures (240–300 °C) with elemental sulfur. Using a TiO2 buffer layer and a platinum co-catalyst, photocurrent densities up to ∼9 mA cm–2 were achieved at −0.4 V vs RHE in 1 M H2SO4 under one sun illumination. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy band alignment studies and potential-dependent incident photon-to-current efficiency measurements, a conduction band offset of 0.7 eV was obtained for the Sb2S3/TiO2 junction as well as an unfavorable band bending at the heterointerface, which explains the low photovoltage that was observed (∼0.1 V). Upon inserting an In2S3 buffer layer, which offers a better band alignment, a 0.15 V increase in photovoltage was obtained. The excellent photoelectrochemical water splitting performance and the identification of the origin of the low photovoltage of the Sb2S3 photocathodes in this work pave the way for the further development of this promising earth-abundant light-absorbing semiconductor for solar fuel generation.

A new endstation to perform operando chemical analysis at solid–liquid interfaces by means of ambient pressure x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (APXPS) is presented. The endstation is located at the Swiss Light Source and can be attached to the soft x-ray in situ spectroscopy beamline (X07DB) for solid–gas type experiments and to a tender x-ray beamline (PHOENIX I) for solid–liquid interface experiments. The setup consists of three interconnected ultrahigh vacuum chambers: one for sample preparation using surface science techniques, the analysis chamber for APXPS experiments, and an entry-lock chamber for sample transfer across the two pressure regimes. The APXPS chamber is designed to study solid–liquid interfaces stabilized by the dip and pull method. Using a three-electrode setup, the potential difference across the solid-electrolyte interface can be controlled, as is demonstrated here using an Ir(001) electrode dipped and pulled from a 0.1M KOH electrolyte. The new endstation is successfully commissioned and will offer unique opportunities for fundamental studies of phenomena that take place at solid–liquid interfaces and that are relevant for fields such as electrochemistry, photochemistry, or biochemistry, to name a few.

Large research efforts have been devoted to optimizing the output of earth-abundant photoabsorbers in solar-to-fuel (S2F) devices. Here, we report a Cu2O/Ga2O3 heterojunction/Si microwire photocathode with an underlying buried radial Si p–n junction, which achieves efficient light harvesting across the visible spectrum to over 600 nm, reaching an external quantum yield for hydrogen generation close to 80%, with a photocurrent onset above +1.35 V vs RHE, a photocurrent density of ∼10 mA/cm2 at 0 V vs RHE, and an ideal regenerative efficiency of 5.51%. We show step-by-step the effects of every photocathode design element (i.e., Si p–n junction, Cu2O layer thickness, microwire length, microwire pitch, etc.) on the overall efficiency of our final microwire Si/Cu2O photocathode by comparing every addition to a baseline Cu2O photocathode. Lastly, we show a stable operation exceeding 200 h at a bias potential of +1.0 V vs RHE, with an average current density of 4.5 mA/cm2.

Semiconductor-based solar energy conversion devices are often multilayer structures with each layer serving a distinct purpose towards generating an efficient and stable device. In water splitting, the use of atomic layer deposited TiO2 (ALD-TiO2) layers enables the stable operation of materials that would normally photocorrode in the aqueous electrolyte. Interestingly, thick ALD-TiO2 (>50 nm) has been successfully used to protect high performance photoanodes, despite an apparent band mismatch that should preclude charge transfer. The understanding of the charge transfer through the relatively thick TiO2 layer remains controversial and warrants further study. Here, we introduce an operando methodology to study charge carrier processes in the ALD-TiO2 protected photoanode by utilizing photoelectrochemical impedance spectroscopy (PEIS) combined with the dual-working-electrode (DWE) technique to resolve if the charge transport through the TiO2 is a conduction band process or involves a hopping through defect states. Two silicon-based systems were evaluated, one featuring a buried homojunction (np+Si/TiO2/Ni) and the other a purely n-type Si directly interfaced with TiO2 (nSi/TiO2/Ni). The additional series resistance imparted by the TiO2 layer (RTiO2) was extracted from the PEIS measurements. Both the potential and thickness dependence of RTiO2 were analyzed, and the DWE technique enabled the sensing of the potential of the TiO2 layer under operation, indicating a strong band bending with the conduction band even more positive than the oxygen evolution potential. Together, these data suggest a conduction band-based transport mechanism, in spite of the presence of defect states in the bandgap of ALD-TiO2, and a detailed picture of the charge transfer through the multilayer structured photoanodes was obtained.

Photoabsorber materials such as Cu2O, which are normally prone to degradation reactions in aqueous environment, have regained attention for photoelectrochemical water splitting (PEC) due to the use of protective overlayers. Furthermore, by implementing an additional interlayer between the photoabsorber and protective layer, the photovoltage and the overall device efficiency can be enhanced due to the increased built-in voltage at the p–n junction. The detailed analysis of these multilayer PEC photoelectrodes under operando conditions is challenging due to the multiplicity of interfaces and charge carrier processes. To facilitate routine investigation of such multilayer systems, we have established a resistance-based method using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to identify the underlying potential-dependent processes of water splitting photocathodes under operation, which quickly reveals the problematic interfaces in these structures. Cu2O/Ga2O3/TiO2/RuOx and p–Si/TiO2/RuOx photocathodes were investigated, with varying thicknesses of both interlayer and protection layer. The main limitations in the Cu2O devices were found to be the Ga2O3/TiO2 interface and the surface properties of the cuprous oxide absorber (most likely Cu2+ at the surface). We demonstrate that a commonly applied etching procedure of the Cu2O to remove surface impurities reduced the associated resistance, but was not sufficient to achieve an ideal interface to the electron accepting layer. The analysis scheme enabled us to shed light on most of the involved charge carrier processes taking place in these complex systems, and we expect that this method will be applicable to other multilayer systems, facilitating a more routine and powerful operando characterization method for water splitting photoelectrodes. Furthermore the knowledge gained in this investigation will pave the way for the development of a complete equivalent circuit model of these protected buried heterojunction photocatho

A key challenge for photoelectrochemical water splitting is that high performance semiconductors are not stable in aqueous electrolytes, necessitating corrosion protection layers such as TiO2. In the best case, the protection layer would also serve as the heterojunction partner, minimizing complexity and thereby cost. However, the bands of most high performance semiconductors are poorly aligned with TiO2, limiting the photovoltage. Here, we describe a method to overcome this limitation through the placement of a tunable dipole layer at the interface of the p- and n-type materials, shifting the relative band positions to enable an increased photovoltage. The introduction of a phosphonic acid (PA, H3PO3) layer increases the photovoltage of TiO2-protected Si, Sb2Se3, and Cu2O photocathodes. The dipole effect scales with PA surface coverage, and gives even larger shifts when multilayers are employed. By varying the thickness from submonolayer to multilayer (up to 2 nm), we are able to tune the photovoltage of p-Si/TiO2 over a range of 400 mV.